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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



RIVERSIDE TEXTBOOKS 
IN EDUCATION 

EDITED BY ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION 
LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY 



RIVERSIDE TEXTBOOKS 
IN EDUCATION 

EDITED BY ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY 

RURAL LIFE AND EDUCATION. By E. P. 

Cubberley, Professor of Education, Leland Stan- 
ford Junior University. #1.50 net. Postpaid. 

THE HYGIENE OF THE SCHOOL CHILD. 

By L. M. Terman, Associate Professor of Edu- 
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THE EVOLUTION OF THE EDUCATIONAL 
IDEAL. By Mabel I. Emerson, First Assistant 
in Charge of the George Bancroft School, Boston. 
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HEALTH WORK IN THE SCHOOLS. By E. 

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DISCIPLINE AS A SCHOOL PROBLEM. By A. 

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HOW TO TEACH THE FUNDAMENTAL 

SUBJECTS. By C. N. Kendall, Commissioner 
of Education for New Jersey, and G. A. Mirick, 
formerly Deputy Commissioner of Education for 
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PUBLIC SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION. By E. 

P. Cubberley. In press. 

TEACHING LITERATURE IN THE GRAM- 
MAR GRADES AND HIGH SCHOOL. By 

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lish, Central Commercial and Manual Training 
High School, Newark, N. J. In press. 



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HOW TO TEACH 

THE FUNDAMENTAL 

SUBJECTS 

BY 

CALVIN N. KENDALL 

COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION FOR THE 
STATE OF NEW JERSEY 

AND 

GEORGE A. MIRICK 

FORMERLY DEPUTY COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION 
FOR THE STATE OF NEW JERSEY 




HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 



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COPYRIGHT, 1915, BY CALVIN N. KENDALL AND GEORGE A. MIRICK 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS 
U . S . A 



,.,-. 




NOV I 1915 

©CI.A414363 

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EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 

The authors of this volume of the series have had 
unusual opportunities to study the methods and results 
of competent teachers, and to note wherein beginning 
teachers and those with little training are most fre- 
quently deficient. They have also been largely con- 
cerned, for many years and in important places, with 
the preparation of courses of study, teaching plans, 
and the supervision of instruction. The results of their 
experience and observation relating to elementary- 
school instruction they have embodied in this book, 
presenting these results in that simple, direct, and 
unadorned language which is calculated to render a 
maximum of assistance to both experienced and in- 
experienced teachers. 

For one cause or another many teachers have not 
been able to obtain that careful preparation for teach- 
ing which the best professional standards of the 
day require. Moreover, there are many teachers, and 
often those of some training and experience, who are 
so situated that they cannot have that aid and in- 
spiration which come from the frequent visits of a 
helpful supervisory officer. Such teachers will find this 
volume of much value in bringing to them the expert 
advice which teachers in our more progressive school 
systems to-day receive. The discussions herein pre- 



vi EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 

sented on the teaching of the common-school branches 
will be found to be helpful and practical. Those who 
are preparing to teach will also find in the volume a 
good presentation of the best methods of instruction 
in these fundamental studies of the elementary-school 
course. 

Every teacher faces more or less the danger of having 
her work gradually sink into a lifeless routine. When 
this happens, ineffective instruction and educational 
waste usually come to characterize her teaching. 
There are a number of means for preventing the com- 
ing on of such a condition, but two of the surest of 
these are the daily contact with an inspiring supervisor, 
and a maintained familiarity with the best working 
plans and the most successful methods employed by 
members of the teaching profession elsewhere. It is be- 
lieved that this volume, written as it has been by two 
of our most successful supervisors, offers such a pres- 
entation of working plans and successful methods, and 
with such a belief it is herewith presented to the teach- 
ing public. 

Ellwood P. Cubberley. 



PREFACE 

This book discusses the teaching of the common 
fundamental subjects found in elementary schools. It 
also contains suggestions as to what should make up 
the course of study in these subjects, and it attempts 
to set forth some of the principles that should underlie 
methods of instruction and determine the selection of 
subject-matter. It is essentially a book for the use 
of teachers and supervisors of schools and for those 
who are preparing to be teachers. 

The subjects discussed consume by far the greater 
part of the time of both teachers and pupils in the 
elementary schools. To say that the teaching of these 
subjects should be as skillful as possible is a common- 
place. Because of the difference in the quality of 
teaching, one class exercise in reading is of infinitely 
greater value than another class exercise. For the 
same reason, one school may be found to be inferior 
to another school, even in the same system. 

To secure better teaching in the plain things of the 
course of study is one of the needs of the schools, and 
therefore one of the supreme objects of school admin- 
istration. 

"Whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well " 
is as true of the teaching and study of spelling, English 
composition, and arithmetic, and of the other activities 



viii PREFACE 

of the school, as it is of the business of life itself. To 
the extent that the teaching of the fundamental sub- 
jects is well done, to that extent is good use made of 
the greater part of the pupils' time. Moreover, there is 
the insistent public demand for good results in these 
subjects. 

The interests that engage the attention of the public 
schools have rapidly multiplied during very recent 
years. The administration of schools, never a simple 
matter, has become a complex affair — largely because 
of changes in our social and economic life. Only a 
partial enumeration of new fields of work either forced 
upon or undertaken by public-school authorities in- 
cludes the use of school-buildings as social or com- 
munity centers, industrial training of various kinds, 
the vocational guidance of pupils, the training of men- 
tally defective children, the growth of parent-teacher 
organizations and others of similar character, the 
broadening of the scope of physical education including 
medical inspection and the teaching of safety ,the better 
enforcement of compulsory education laws, the estab- 
lishment of different kinds of schools for different types 
of children, better appointed schoolhouses, the increase 
in the number of special days to be observed, the estab- 
lishment of summer schools, and playgrounds. This 
list readily might be extended. By their entrance into 
social and industrial fields the schools have enormously 
increased their usefulness. 

All this, however, should cause, and need cause, no 



PREFACE ix 

diminution of interest in the substantial teaching of 
the fundamental subjects. Indeed, when these activi- 
ties are properly directed and coordinated with the 
fundamental subjects, better results in the latter may 
be expected. 

Two other considerations may be mentioned which 
influence the work of teachers in the elementary field. 
One is the very great expansion of knowledge; the 
other is the better understanding of children. The 
first offers a temptation to attempt too many things; 
the second reveals the necessity of modifying some 
of the traditional ways of teaching. It is hoped that 
in the following pages teachers may find suggestions 
that will help them to meet the complex requirements 
of their profession. 



CONTENTS 

Chapter I. The Point of View 1 

Collateral reading 6 

Chapter II. English .8 

Reading: Reading in the "true" sense — Characteristics 
of a good system of instruction — Conditions favoring 
success — Silent and oral reading and study — Grade I — 
Grade II — Grade III — Grades IV-VI — Grades VII 
and VIII — Reading tests. 
Collateral reading 59 

Common Speech: Practical importance — The teacher's 
influence — Instruction and training. 
Collateral reading 68 

Composition: The nature of composition — The teach- 
er's part — Oral composition — Material — Subjects — 
Outlines — Oral criticism — Written composition — Crit- 
icism — Letter- writing — Vocabulary — Capitalization 
and punctuation — Dictation exercises — Use of black- 
board. 
Collateral reading .' . . . . . .' .111 

Grammar: Its limited value — Skill in using essentials 

— Material for study — Methods of instruction — Sum- 
mary. 

Collateral reading 122 

Spelling: Selection of words — Study with the teacher 

— Pupils' private study — Tests and reviews — Type 
lessons — Pupils' interest. 

Collateral reading 144 

Penmanship: Qualities of good penmanship — The pen- 
manship lesson — Left-handed pupils — Tests — In pri- 
mary grades — In intermediate grades — In grammar 
grades. 
Collateral reading 162 



xii CONTENTS 

Chapter III. Mathematics 164 

The field of elementary mathematics — Mathemati- 
cal skill in interpretation, in calculation, in application 

— Inductive teaching — Mental and oral exercises — 
Standards of quality — Tests — Geometry — Algebra — 
A course of study for elementary grades. 

Collateral reading 223 

Chapter IV. Geography, History, Cmcs . . 224 

Geography: Course of study epitomized — Home geog- 
raphy — Geographical excursions — World geography — 
Products of an elementary course — Type examination 

— Geographical apparatus — Dramatization — Mary 
Antin quoted. 

Collateral reading 252 

History: In the first six-and-one-half years — In the 
seventh and eighth years — Lessons described — Use of 
book — Debates — Dramatization — Tests — Pictures 

— Maps — Use of libraries. 

Collateral reading 265 

Civics: Teaching civics through the life of the school — 
The spirit of liberty — School and outside interests — The 
school as a civic organization — Teaching civics through 
♦ school industrial activities — Girls' activities — Boys' 
activities — Teaching civics through books — Conduct of 
the recitation. 
Collateral reading 287 

Chapter V. Hygiene 289 

Public and school responsibility — For teachers of 
grades I-IV — For teachers of grades V-VIII — In rural 
schools — Class discussions — The general health of the 
school — "Safety first" — Results in conduct and knowl- 



Collateral reading 315 

Bibliography 317 

Index 321 



HOW TO TEACH 
THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

CHAPTER I 

THE POINT OF VIEW 

Every teacher is asking daily two questions, "What 
shall I teach? How shall I teach? " Some answers each 
teacher must give to these questions, and in a variety 
of ways each is answering them every time a lesson is 
planned, assigned or taught. 

The local course of study is a general guide for the 
teachers. It states, for instance, that South America or 
division is to be taught in a certain grade. It directs 
the teacher to select carefully the material for study. It 
recommends methods of instruction. But these gen- 
eral suggestions must be interpreted and the methods 
must" be adapted when they are applied in the educa- 
tion of different individuals and classes. If only im- 
portant facts are to be taught, the teacher must have 
standards by which the value of facts may be measured. 
If instruction is to be effective, the facts taught must 
be related to the pupils' present interests. 

Inasmuch as teachers are engaged in a public serv- 
ice and not in a private business, it is important that 
the answers that they make to the questions, "What 



2 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

shall I teach? How shall I teach? " be in harmony with 
the point of view that is prevailing at the present time. 
That the great body of teachers is earnestly searching 
for present-day answers is evidenced by the study they 
are giving everywhere to education. 

It is true that final answers cannot be found for 
these fundamental educational questions. But teachers 
are as much under obligation to search for them as the 
sociologist, the physician, the electrician, the biologist 
are under obligation to search for the undiscoverable 
answers to the fundamental questions in their fields of 
interest. The search will carry each one nearer the 
truth. 

If, then, one looks out into the world to discover the 
influence that is now at work there, he cannot fail to 
see that in government, in business, in religion, in sci- 
ence, in fact in every phase of human thinking and 
action the "practical" point of view is controlling. If 
he transfers his study to the field of education, he will 
find the same influence there also, and he will discover 
that it is somewhat rapidly modifying school practices 
from the kindergarten through the university. 

So much has been written and said regarding this 
influence that no full discussion of it will be attempted 
here. But inasmuch as the treatment of each sub- 
ject that follows is made from this practical standpoint, 
it will be well for the reader to have in mind at the 
outset a few of the educational implications involved 
in it, that are now very generally accepted. 



THE POINT OF VIEW 3 

These implications are as follows : — 

1. Only those subjects and those parts of subjects should 
be studied which are useful in everyday modern life. 

2. The emphasis given to a subject or a topic of study in 
school should be determined by its relative usefulness 
in the community. 

3. Having selected the material for study and determined 
the amount of emphasis to be given each subject and 
topic according to the preceding two principles, the 
distribution of subjects and the assignment of topics 
should be governed by the learners' abilities, aptitudes 
and experience. 

4. Methods of instruction and of study should conform 
with the nature of the learner and of the subject taught. 

5. Methods of instruction should involve as far as pos- 
sible immediate practical application of knowledge, 
that has a two-fold result : first, a useful product that 
is worth while in the view of the learner, and second, 
skill in performance. 

The acceptance of this point of view and of these 
implications does not turn every school into a trade 
school. It does not discard, even from trade schools, 
art, literature, music, or any other subject useful in 
life. That is not alone useful which contributes to mere 
existence and its physical comforts. That is also useful 
that raises living to a higher plane, and that gives it in 
any particular a new or greater value. Education that 
is planned to realize the practical ideal, purposes to take 
into account all the values in life and to relate them in 
living processes, in harmony with and reinforcing the 
biological process. 

Where this point of view is the guiding principle, 
all subjects and parts of subjects that have no present- 



4 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

day value will be eliminated from the curriculum to- 
gether with those subjects that have been taught as an 
end in themselves, or for disciplinary purposes only. 
Courses of study will be differentiated as soon as 
individual abilities or inabilities become so well de- 
veloped that they are safe educational guides. Each 
school will have an individuality of its own, creating 
each for itself a peculiar school life, making use of the 
materials and opportunities that are at hand, accept- 
ing the limitations established by the social and eco- 
nomic conditions of the pupils and by its situation. 
The rural school will not copy the city school, but each 
will have the equipment, each will evolve the program 
of work and play and each will apply the methods that 
experience proves to be most effective in realizing the 
practical ideal. 

The acceptance of this point of view carries with it 
the acceptance also of the fact that knowledge in the 
abstract and unrelated lacks a very large part of its 
significance. That Froebel recognized this is demon- 
strated by his gifts and occupations. There are many 
common illustrations of its truth. The tables of meas- 
urements, for example, are by themselves meaning- 
less. They acquire meaning as they are objectively 
applied. English words whose meaning and use are 
unknown are as foreign to pupils as Sanskrit or 
Chinese words, and the study of their spelling is as 
profitless in the one case as in the other. The formula 
for mixing cement has only a potential value which is 



THE POINT OF VIEW 5 

realized when the formula is applied in an actual mix- 
ing process. Because abstract knowledge is futile, the 
education of doctors, lawyers, engineers, scientists, 
business men, is to-day fifty per cent practice; that is, 
application of the knowledge found in books and re- 
ceived in the lecture room. It must therefore come 
to pass that methods of elementary instruction will 
include increasingly practical, concrete use of knowl- 
edge by each pupil. The more fundamentally im- 
portant the knowledge, the more imperative is the 
need for experience in application. 

Although the growing acceptance of this point of 
view is evolving a very different type of school from 
that of the nineteenth century, there are minor de- 
tails on which there is no general agreement. For ex- 
ample, it is now agreed that useless mathematics should 
be eliminated from the elementary school curriculum; 
but there appears to be a difference of opinion regard- 
ing the practical value of the cube and square root of 
large numbers. There is general assent to the proposal 
to omit all grammar that is not directly useful in bet- 
tering a child's talking and writing; but all do not agree 
to omit a study of the infinitive. Self-control and self- 
direction are universally recognized as qualities that 
determine successful living, but people judge differ- 
ently in particular cases regarding the amount of ex- 
ternal control that is desirable to cultivate these quali- 
ties successfully. 

But, even if there are differences of opinion in many 



6 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

details, nevertheless the acceptance of the practical 
point of view will make of the five implications pre- 
viously mentioned determining influences in the con- 
struction of courses of study, and guides for the teacher 
in interpreting the course of study, in adapting 
methods of instruction, and in regulating the life of the 
school. 

COLLATERAL READING 

1. On discipline: — 

Education. Ralph Waldo Emerson. 
Chapter I, pages 26-34. 

2. On work and play: — 

How We Think. John Dewey. 
Chapter XII, pages 161-69. 

3. On the importance of the concrete and practical: — 

(a) Education. Ralph Waldo Emerson. 

Chapter IV. 
(6) The Concrete and Practical in Modern Education. Charles 
W. Eliot. 

Chapter I, pages 1-8; 10-16; 34-39. 
Chapter II, pages 56-57. 
(c) Interest and Effort. John Dewey. 
Chapter IV. 

4. On individuality: — 

(a) Genetic Psychology for Teachers. C. H. Judd. 

Chapter V, pages 129-33; 138-44. 
(6) How to Study. F. M. McMurry, 

Chapter X. 

5. On effort, thinking, and motivation: — 

Interest and Effort. John Dewey. — 
Chapter III. 

6. On the course of study: — 

Culture, Discipline, and Democracy. A. Duncan Yocum. 

Chapter VII. 

7. On dramatization: — 

The Dramatic Method of Teaching. Harriet Finley Johnson. 
Chapter I. 



THE POINT OF VIEW 

8. On school conditions and mental training: — 
(a) How We Think. John Dewey. 
Chapter III, pages 43-44. 
Chapter IV. 

(&) How to Study. F. M. McMurry. 

Chapter XI. 
(c) Genetic Psychology for Teachers. C. H. Judd. 
Chapter IV. 

Also the following boohs: — 

Changing Conceptions of Education. E. P. Cubberley. 

A brief resume" of the history of the American public school, showing 
its evolution to the present time. 

The School and Society. John Dewey. 
A modern educational classic. 



CHAPTER n 

ENGLISH 

The study of the English language may relate to 
any one of the six phases: reading, common speech, 
composition, grammar, spelling, and penmanship. In 
this order these subjects are discussed in the follow- 
ing pages. 

Reading 

There has been a generally accepted theory that 
"reading is getting the thought from the printed page," 
but in practice much of the reading in schools con- 
sists in orally reproducing the words of the printed 
page. "Good expression" in oral reading commonly 
receives first and most careful attention. Systematic 
search for the thought is often omitted or slighted. In 
fact, not infrequently oral reading and reading have 
been treated as equivalent. 

It is true that oral reading is an important part of 
teaching to read, but it should be realized that the 
ability to recognize and say words, even to say them 
with a semblance of understanding, is not a proof of 
ability to read. One may do this and yet be quite un- 
able to read with intelligence or appreciation. 

Dr. G. Stanley Hall appositely says: "True reading 



ENGLISH 9 

is taking in the ideas, sentiments, facts of the author 
as completely and as unchanged as possible. . . . Later, 
of course, and only later, comes the reader's critical 
reaction upon what he has read." 

The reading to which Dr. Hall refers is purely a 
mental process, the first half of which is sympathetic 
understanding, appreciation, and self -surrender to the 
author. The second half consists in putting the au- 
thor's thought over against the reader's experience and 
conviction. This requires the reader's self-assertion 
and his critical judgment. 

Thus we see that the mere vocal pronunciation of 
words is only a mechanical phase of reading. In the 
early stages of learning to read, we have to emphasize 
it, and keep the child saying "cat" and "mat" until 
he recognizes the idea instantly from the printed 
words. But this emphasis is justified only as it is rec- 
ognized as an economical approach to true reading. 
The teacher should keep before the child the great 
purpose of reading — that through this patient labor 
he is unlocking for himself a magic storehouse of won- 
derful tales. 

You remember how in Kipling's Baa, Baa, Black 
Sheep, poor little Black Sheep was driven to "learn 
to read." Aunty Rosa set him up on a table with a dog- 
eared primer and told him that a b was ab. When 
Black Sheep inquired why, she responded, "Because 
I tell you it is, and you've got to say it." So he ac- 
cepted the fact rebelliously, and later also accepted 



10 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

the statement that certain dots and marks meant: 
"The cat lay on the mat and the rat came in." Aunty 
Rosa said so, and you were beaten if you did n't say so, 
too. Presently he could "read" about the cat equally 
well with the primer upside down. "Now I can truly 
read," said Black Sheep, "and now I will never read 
anything again." 

Then in the cupboard he found a ragged book of 
adventures, and for the first time understood that 
those hieroglyphs had interesting meanings. He dived 
into that book with delight, and emerged demanding: 
"What is a falchion? What is an e-wee lamb? What 
is a base us-surper?" He was punished by his elders 
for asking questions; but that did n't matter. Black 
Sheep had learned to read, and by the next post he 
asked his father for "all the books in the world." 
That was true reading. 

So, while oral reading is the road to the enchanted 
palace, it is not the palace itself. One may not be able 
to reach the palace without traveling the road; but it 
is quite inexcusable for a guide to mistake the dusty 
highway for the magic garden in which the palace 
stands. 

The relative importance of the different phases in 
reading may be roughly indicated by the diagram on 
the opposite page, in which the circle represents the 
entire reading process. 



ENGLISH 



11 




Learning to read 

The pupil passes through a period when he is be- 
coming acquainted with the mechanics of reading. 
He must learn to rec- 
ognize and pronounce 
words and letters, to 
associate meanings 
with words, phrases, 
and sentences. This 
period extends through 
the first three years of 
school. 

In former times, the 
learning process was 
mechanical and for- 
mal. Pupils memo- 
rized the names of the letters in the alphabet, and then 
memorized the spelling of disconnected words, their 
copper-toed shoes ranged along the guide-line of a 
convenient crack in the schoolroom floor. That was 
the method in the school of which Whittier sang, 
"I'm sorry that I spelt the word! I hate to go above 
you." When a few of the simplest words had been 
learned, they were put together into short, unrelated 
sentences, in which the cat and the rat and the mat 
played star roles. 

In the course of time it was realized that the name 
of a letter is often as different from its sound in a word 



Diagram showing comparative proportion 
of time to be devoted to the mechaDics of 
reading and to mental and emotional training. 



12 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

as a person's name is different from his voice. It was 
David Grayson, I think, who tells of the French serv- 
ant-maid who spelled her name without using a single 
correct letter. She was christened Sophie. Her ear for 
spelling was phonetically fairly good. And her trium- 
phant result was Cawfy. This is true of many words. 
For instance, the pronunciation of the word their could 
never be discovered by giving in sequence the names 
of the letters of which it is made. So it came to pass 
that the sounds of letters were taught as well as their 
names, and phonics became an element in the teach- 
ing-to-read process. 

During recent years, the teaching of reading has been 
influenced also by a more general recognition of the 
fact that the pupil himself is on a par in importance 
with the subject he studies. The interests of children, 
the ways in which their minds act, their capacities 
and aptitudes, are modifying methods of instruction 
and drill, and are determining the kind and quantity 
of reading assigned, and the quality expected in each 
grade. 

Characteristics of a good system of teaching reading 

From the experiments and experiences of those wise 
investigators and teachers who have taken into ac- 
count both the subject and the learner, some general 
principles are discoverable. These may be found in 
all good systems of teaching primary reading. The 
teacher will be able, if she understands these prin- 



ENGLISH 13 

ciples, to use intelligently the available texts or the 
adopted system without employing the exaggerations 
of any particular method or discrediting the teaching 
a child may have previously received at home or in 
some other school. These principles may be stated as 
follows : — 

1. The child's own life is the basis of his interests. 
Therefore the material of his early reading-lessons 
should relate to this life. This thought material may 
be drawn directly from his life experiences — those of 
which he is already conscious, or those that the teacher 
may help him realize. Or it may be drawn from stories 
or pictures that portray similar experiences. Pets, 
playmates, games and other good times are character- 
istic topics. 

2. The story quality. It is the better practice now to 
have the early lessons in reading consist of sentences 
which have such a relation to each other that they 
make a continued story. If the teacher prefers to begin 
with isolated words, there should be no delay in put- 
ting them into interesting sentences and in relating the 
sentences in a story. If the sentence is the starting 
point, the pupil should begin at once to recognize the 
individual word. In short, the word and sentence 
methods should be so blended that the pupil's mind 
is littered neither with a miscellaneous lot of discon- 
nected word-forms, nor with a series of unanalyzed 
sentence forms. 

S. Using the sounds of letters. The letters composing 



14 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

the words will be gradually, though systematically, 
learned as they are needed. For instance, the words 
pin and pen differ only in the middle letters. Inas- 
much as the pupils need to note the difference in the 
form of these letters and their sounds, before they need 
to know their names, it has become customary to re- 
quire the children to give the sounds of the letters, and 
identify them by sound, before they call them by 
name. Diacritical marks are not used as much as 
formerly, but the long and short signs are generally 
believed to be helpful, even in the earlier stages of 
learning to read. 

Jf. Saying the alphabet. While it is doubtless the 
general practice to delay the formal learning of the 
names of the letters until the first steps in the learning 
process have been taken, yet these should be known 
in their order by the end of the first year. However, 
formal exercises in "saying the alphabet" should not 
be given until near the close of the year. 

5. Making the pupils independent. Pupils should be 
made increasingly independent of the teacher's as- 
sistance. The teacher may easily force this independ- 
ence too far, and some systems have erred in this 
particular. Nevertheless, the teacher's function is 
that of a helper when there is real need of help. If 
assistance is not given when it is needed, waste of 
time and mental confusion of the pupil result. 

6. Recognition of words. In a good system of teach- 
ing reading, such varied uses of the words to be learned 



ENGLISH 15 

will be given that they are readily recognized whenever 
they are seen, either alone, or in new relations. 

7. The evil of mechanical repetition. The form or 
sound of a word, or of a sentence, must never be di- 
vorced from the meaning. The mechanical repetition 
of words or sentences should have no place in school. 

8. Use of script or print in blackboard lessons. There 
appears to be no agreement among successful teachers 
as to the use of script and print in the early blackboard 
lessons. The forms of print that one teacher uses in 
writing on the board are doubtless as different from 
the print of the book as are the script forms used by 
another teacher. At least, the pupils appear to find no 
greater difficulty with one than with the other. Al- 
though teachers who use print testify that the print 
forms are as easy to make as the script forms, yet if 
there is no particular advantage to be gained — and 
in actual practice there seems to be no advantage — 
it seems unwise to ask teachers to train themselves to 
become skillful in printing. 

9: The place of phonics. It is now generally recog- 
nized that phonics should not be taught for its own 
sake. Its one excuse for existence is the help it may 
give a pupil in reading. The most recent teachers' 
manuals agree in carefully selecting the kind of work 
and in limiting the amount given. It is realized that 
phonics is an unsafe guide to pronunciation, outside of 
a very limited field. Moreover, visual syllabication, 
or the practice of teaching words in parts, destroys the 



16 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

mental picture of the word as an unbroken whole. The 
pupil comes to see the word in two forms, and is hin- 
dered rather than helped. For illustrative purposes, it 
may be desirable to divide a word into syllables, but 
the divided word should not be allowed to impress 
itself on the mind. 

Nevertheless, it is unquestionably a help to be able 
to recognize short words and groups of letters which 
invariably, or almost invariably, sound the same in 
whatever words they may occur. Such prefixes as 
in, pre, con; such suffixes as ly, ed, ing; such phono- 
grams as ease, cat, en, own, may be taught to excellent 
advantage. Employed with discrimination, phonics 
is a help in teaching reading and also leads to an im- 
proved use of the vocal organs. 

10. Voice training. "The American voice" has 
justly been the subject of criticism. Listen to the 
voices in a street-car, at a tea, in the public highways, 
and it will be noticed that many of them are harsh and 
uncultivated. I sez to him and he sez to me are as com- 
mon as they are deplorable. Such slovenly usage as 
winder, goin\ and the like should not be tolerated. 
The soft intonation arid clear, pleasant diction of some 
educated people are delightful exceptions to our na- 
tional habit of rasping and untidy speech. Every 
teacher should do all he can to eradicate it among the 
young Americans under his charge. 

Much study is now being given in some quarters to 
the problem of voice training in the schools, and in the 



ENGLISH 17 

near future practical suggestions based on the physi- 
ology of speaking will doubtless be given to teachers. 
At present, the best that most of them can do is to 
secure through exercises a clear, distinct utterance of 
pleasing quality, and a correct pronunciation. 

The director of music is made responsible in some 
schools for training in the use of the speaking and 
reading voice as well as of the singing voice, and he 
may very properly be called on for this service. 

11. Ear training. This is important in the first les- 
sons. For this, stories may be told with broken words 
for pupils to recognize and name. For example : — 

Once a f-o-x was going down a dusty r-oad. He saw a large 
b-unch of gr-a-pes hanging high upon a vi-ne. He tried to 
reach the gr-a-pes, but he could not do it. Then he said: 
"These gr-a-pes are s-our. I do not want th-em." 

12. The eye-minded and the ear-minded. Attention 
should be given to the different types of learners. 
These are as evident in reading as in arithmetic, spell- 
ing, and other subjects. If phonics is used too much, 
some eye-minded children will lose their natural ad- 
vantage. If each pupil is not given an opportunity to 
vocalize, to listen, to form words, letters, and sen- 
tences on the blackboard; if dramatization is not em- 
ployed, some children will fail in reading who ought 
not to fail. 

13. A good system of teaching reading will be simple. 
It has been pointed out by Dr. Hall l that an intelli- 

1 Educational Problems. 



18 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

gent child does not require an elaborate method of 
instruction. The more intelligent the child, the simpler 
the method should be. It is the mentally deficient who 
need the highly elaborated process of instruction. So 
true is this that many children learn to read at home 
with very little help from their elders. 

lJi.. Give the children "plenty to read. No system is 
good that does not give pupils plenty of practice in 
reading. Several readers and miscellaneous books that 
are interesting and adapted to the grade should be 
available even in the first year. 

15. Make the reading lesson pleasurable. A good 
system may be judged by the temper of the class. The 
reading exercise should be a happy one, not drudgery. 
The spirit of anticipation in "Tell me a story" should 
be its spirit, and children should find it as pleasant as 
their elders find the reading of a novel or a book of 
verse. On the jacket of a recent "best seller" is in- 
scribed a word of wisdom: — 

Life for most of us is getting up in the morning and going 
to bed again at night, with eight or nine more hours of work 
sandwiched in between. Our adventures are practical ad- 
ventures of something to eat and something to wear. If we 
keep out of debt and in health we feel we have done pretty 
well. And so we have, but it is not particularly exhilarating. 
Life, we know, must hold something more; that if we had 
time to turn the corner, we should find Romance; if we were 
free to go down the other side of the mountain, we should 
meet Adventure. But Work and Duty are our relentless 
overseers. How shall we escape them and find the happy land 
of Something Doing? There is but one door open, and above 
it is written the cheering word Fiction. 



ENGLISH 19 

So the reading lesson should be an excursion into the 
land of adventure, not a hated and hateful ordeal. 
In fact, that is not putting it strongly enough. The 
reading lesson should be the most keenly anticipated 
hour of the child's day. 

The reading lesson is primarily — should be pri- 
marily — a time when the child's experience is broad- 
ened, when he lives a richer, fuller, more varied life 
than he can possibly enjoy in his own circumscribed 
world. In the reading lesson he can "run away" from 
the prosaic and familiar, open the magic gate of the 
printed page, and enter the world of imagination. 

Don't lock that wonderful gateway in his face with 
a complicated system of phonics, word-drills, and 
other bolts and bars. Don't stop at the very moment 
when everybody is on tiptoe to know whether the 
Crocodile actually ate the Elephant's Child for dinner, 
or whether William Tell really cleft the apple on his 
little boy's head, — don't stop then and ask something 
irrelevant about diacritical marks. The supreme aim 
in the reading lesson is to make the child love to read. 
Do that and you have done well. 

Conditions favoring success 

But there are other considerations that will very 
largely determine the success of the teacher of reading 
in the first three grades besides those that have been 
discussed. They relate to size and make-up of classes, 
to the amount of time given to the subject, to the proper 



20 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

relations of silent and oral reading lessons, to the selec- 
tion of reading matter, and to the influence of the 
teacher's reading on that of the pupils. 

The relatively small reading class is absolutely nec- 
essary throughout these years when each pupil must 
be reached in each recitation. Each one must have 
a chance to make his own mistakes, and there must 
be time for corrections. Moreover, pupils should be 
grouped according to their ability, the less mature 
and less able being placed in the smaller groups. In 
the case of the latter, the regular class work should 
be supplemented by special help and practice in small 
groups of two to six pupils. These extra group exer- 
cises should not be left to chance, but should be pro- 
vided for in the daily program. Only thus will the 
usually high percentage of retardation in these early 
years be reduced to its just proportion. 

The amount of time given to reading during these 
years should be proportionate to its importance. In 
the first and second years, each of the three regular 
classes into which a school may be divided should have 
three fifteen-minute periods daily with the teacher. 
In schools with two or more grades, this desirable 
amount of time may be reduced. In the third year at 
least one twenty-minute period daily, with divisions 
of from ten to fifteen pupils, should be given to training 
in reading, and a second period of the same length 
with divisions consisting of half the school — never 
the entire school — should be given to supplementary 



ENGLISH 21 

reading. While one division is thus engaged, the others 
may be having a silent reading lesson. 

Silent and oral reading and study 

The silent reading lesson is as important in these 
grades as the oral reading lesson. In fact, as it has 
been pointed out previously, oral reading is largely a 
means of training for intelligent and thoughtful silent 
reading. But reading cannot be intelligent and 
thoughtful unless it contains the element of study. 
Inasmuch as children are not born with the knowl- 
edge of how to study, they must be taught. 

There are two types of study lesson: (1) That of the 
class with the teacher. This is generally a preparation 
for an oral reading lesson. (2) That of individual 
study, indirectly controlled by the teacher. 

The profit that pupils derive from these study les- 
sons depends upon the questions or directions given 
by the teacher to guide their thinking. The more def- 
inite and restricted these are, the more they partake 
of the nature of problems, the more thought-provoking 
they will be. 

The direction, "Make as many words as you can" 
is not as stimulating to the mind as the direction, 
"Make ten words that are the names of objects," "of 
actions," "of objects in your kitchen at home," "of 
actions that you see in the schoolroom." Or the teacher 
may suggest, "Make ten words with the phonogram 
ing ; ten with ace "; and so on. This becomes a game, 



22 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

and is instantly popular. Witness the earnestness with 
which children study the word puzzles in the pages 
of St. Nicholas, and the pride with which they win an 
"Honorable Mention." 

There are numerous other fruitful assignments for 
study, of which these are a few examples : — 

1. We are to learn five new words to-day. Let us see who 
will pick them out most quickly as the lesson is read. 

2. This lesson is about a game. Did you ever play it? 
Could we play it? How? 

3. This lesson is about something that happened to a boy 
named Billy. Did anything like this ever happen to 
you? Tell us about it. 

4. Let us write the name of each person in the story. When 
the lesson is read, let us be ready to tell what each one 
did. 

5. Which is the most interesting paragraph in the story? 
What is the most important event? Who is the most 
important person? Whom do you like best? Why? 

6. Is the story well named? Why? 

Another means of stimulating to a thoughtful study 
of a selection is dramatization. Every class from the 
first to the fifth grades should have at least one reader 
in which dramatization is emphasized. To-day there 
are few readers that do not contain a number of selec- 
tions peculiarly adapted to this kind of interpretation, 
even though the editors have given no specific sug- 
gestions for such a use. 

All children have the dramatic instinct, and many 
of them are natural actors, if they are not made self- 
conscious. All the teacher needs to do is to give them 
a chance. 



ENGLISH 23 

The first requirement is "the play." The old folk- 
tales and fables, or stories in the form of conversation 
accompanied with action, will provide that. The 
teacher who has never staged one of these impromptu 
plays will be astonished at the readiness with which 
the children accept the responsibility of planning the 
scenes and arranging the stage setting. The more in- 
formal the exercise, the better. "Let's pretend" is 
a familiar phrase on childish lips. A desk becomes a 
throne, a space railed off by two chairs is transformed 
into a queen's bower, and a stick wound about with 
the merest strip of tinsel is a wand with which to con- 
jure spirits. 

The second requirement is the contagious enthusi- 
asm of the teacher. The children must not be afraid 
to let their imaginations go because "Teacher" is 
there. A most successful performance of Julius Ccesar 
was given by a group of small boys, none of whom had 
ever seen a theatrical performance, under the direction 
of a teacher whose chief qualification was that same 
contagious enthusiasm. He could n't act much, and 
he labored under numerous difficulties. But he felt 
the play, and he made the boys feel it. 

Boohs, home reading, and the teacher 

The necessity for an abundance of well-selected 
reading matter is obvious. The modern primary 
school readers leave little to desire in the quality and 
variety of their selections and in their artistic appear- 



24 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

ance. The teacher's great difficulty is to get enough 
of these books to meet the intellectual needs of the 
pupils. 

In addition to the books provided for regular class 
use, one copy of each of fifteen or twenty books of dif- 
ferent kinds should be supplied to every primary grade 
teacher. These should be loaned to pupils for home 
reading. Many children have books at home, but few 
have them as simple in style, interesting in content, 
and well illustrated as most of the primary grade 
readers. 

And finally, the teacher's reading may be a constant 
inspiration and guide to the children. The teacher who 
reads like a machine will get machine-like reading from 
the pupils, where the teacher who reads with spirit and 
force, entering into the characters, and interpreting 
the thought and emotion of the author, will get a far 
better quality of results with his class. Imitation is a 
powerful educational force. 

The teacher's judgment must be his guide in deter- 
mining when to supply the model in reading for the 
children to follow. He will, of course, not forget that 
the training given the child should produce independ- 
ence. But often it is a mental relief to the class, and 
the best kind of help, for the teacher to read an entire 
selection, or parts of it, as a model for the class to 
imitate. There is also the story telling and the read- 
ing of stories which are too difficult in diction while 
suitable in thought and style for the pupils. The 



ENGLISH 25 

teacher should make this a part of the regular pro- 
gram. 

Grade I 

The first six weeks 

The lessons of the first five or six weeks should be 
at the blackboard. There are three sources whence 
material may be drawn. 

1. Some excellent teachers use the everyday ex- 
perience of the children. A short, spirited conversa- 
tion about the children's games, their pets, or some 
phase of their home life, should introduce each lesson 
that is based on these experiences. 

2. Other teachers prefer to use the simpler nursery 
rhymes. By the end of the month the average normal 
child of six should be able to read easily from script 
or print, as many as twenty-five nursery rhymes and 
repetition tales. The following is a list l of the rhymes 
and stories that were read at the end of a month by the 
children who entered the first grade of the elementary 
school of the Georgia Normal and Industrial College 
in September: — 

Jack Be Nimble. Hey Diddle Diddle. 

Pat-a-Cake. Little Jack Horner. 

Little Boy Blue. Rosy Boys. 

Smiling Girls. Baa, Baa, Black Sheep. 

Ride a Cock Horse. Diddle Diddle Dumpling. 

Who Killed the Rat? Hark, Hark, the Dogs Do 
Hickory Dickory Dock. Bark. 

1 Reported in Education, February, 1911, by Laura Mann. 



26 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

The Little Red Hen. There Was a Little Man and 

Who Has Seen the Wind? He Had a Little Head. 

This Little Pig Went to Little Tim Sprat. 

Market. Bye Baby Bunting. 

Great A, Little A, Bouncing One, Two, Three, Four, Five, 

B. I Caught a Fish Alive. 

There Was an Old Woman There Was a Little Boy. 

Who Lived in a Shoe. The Rain is Raining All 

Pussy Came Creeping at the Around. 

Door. Little Girl, Little Girl, Where 

Have You Been? 

Yet other teachers believe it to be most economical 
to take their blackboard lessons from the primer. After 
these lessons have been taught from the blackboard 
they are reviewed in the book. This generally takes 
about six weeks. 

The quality of the first lessons is as important as the 
subject matter. A reading lesson adapted to the class 
that combines review and new words and that is in- 
teresting cannot be written on the blackboard upon 
the inspiration of the minute. The theme and the 
sequence of sentences should be carefully prepared 
before the lesson is given. 

In the introductory conversation, pupils will say 
much that is entirely too difficult to use in the reading 
lesson. The thoughts, however, can be expressed in 
simple form, so that sentences like the following may 
perhaps be the first ones written on the board: — 

I see a nut. I see a cup. 

I see a leaf. I see a seed. 

I see a bird. The leaf is red. 



ENGLISH 27 

The leaf is brown. This is a rose. 

The rose is red. This is a bird. 

The rose is white. Fly, fly, little bird! 

I see a red leaf. My rose is red. 

I see a red rose. My rose is white. 

Oh, see me jump ! My leaf is green. 

Oh, see me run! Where is the rose? 

Oh, I can skip! Oh, there is a bird! 

Oh, I can hop! Where is the bird? 

This is a leaf. Hop, hop, pretty bird. 

This is green. Where is the nut? 

This is red. Here is the nut. 

Later, such lessons as the following may be pre- 
pared by the teacher for the use of the class : — 

The sun 

Oh, see the sun! The sun gives light. 

The sun is like a ball. Oh, I like the sun. 

The sun is like a sphere. It makes me grow. 
The sun is like a yellow It makes the flowers grow. 

sphere. It makes the trees grow. 

How bright the sun is! It makes the grass grow. 

The sun gives heat. It makes the apples red. 

Teachers may be tempted to delay too long on the 
same lesson in their desire to be thorough. The use of 
words in new relations is a better form of drill than too 
much repetition of one set of sentences. 

For seat work, pupils should be supplied with boxes 
of words and boxes of letters. Words are easily struck 
off on the hectograph, or with rubber stamps. Or they 
may be cut from books that have the proper size of 
type. With this material, great variety in seat occupa- 



28 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

tions is possible. The following exercises may be sug- 
gestive: — 

Matching words to pictures. Filling blanks in elliptical 

Sorting words or letters. sentences. 

Making words from letters. Making original sentences 

Arranging sentences from about some interesting 

words or letters. subject or picture. 

Matching words to their ini- Answering questions written 

tial letters. on the board or on slips of 

Grouping words that rhyme. paper or cardboard. 

Copying verses. 

Beginning the primer 

After the first few weeks the sounds of letters and 
phonograms may be emphasized. This may be done by 
pronouncing simple words very slowly; as n-u-t, c-a-n, 
and so on. Pupils should listen and tell what word was 
said. Commands may be given, as r-u-n, w-alk, s-i-t> 
bring the d-o-lh Pupils may give commands to one an- 
other in the same way. Words may be pronounced 
slowly as they are written on the board. These ex- 
ercises should be given in periods other than those 
assigned for reading. 

Sing-song reading, drawling, shouting, or mumbling 
ought not to be permitted. From the beginning pupils 
are able to speak and read with clear tones of voice and 
with distinct utterance. 

Concert reading should have a very small place in 
school. Pupils can never learn to read by this method 
and bad individual habits are likely to be formed 
and confirmed. To arouse temporary interest or to 



ENGLISH 29 

give variety to the lesson, it doubtless has occasional 
value. 

The third month 

Pupils of standard ability should be ready to read a 
primer or an easy first reader by the beginning of the 
third month. The blackboard will be used for teaching 
throughout the year. 

After the pupils have been prepared by the lesson 
with the teacher and after they have been given a def- 
inite and stimulating assignment, they are ready to 
study silently the entire selection, the teacher assist- 
ing with such words or phrases as give trouble. Some 
difficulties that pupils meet are profitable for class 
discussion, others the pupil should be taught to help 
himself over. 

Where there is uncertainty regarding the meaning of 
a new word, pupils should be trained from the begin- 
ning to let the general sense of the passage help them. 
This does not mean that they should guess; rather, 
they should infer. Guessing is thinking at random; 
inferring is substantial thinking. It is drawing a con- 
clusion from definite data. For example, if this sen- 
tence occurred in a reading lesson, A horse was eating 
hay, and the pupil did not know the word hay, there 
would be no way to determine from the context whether 
it were hay, grass, oats, or any other food commonly 
eaten by horses. It would be best in this case not to 
force a pupil to guess, but rather to give him the word 



30 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

at once, analyzing it into the phonogram ay and the 
consonant h, so that another time he might recognize 
it. On the other hand, if the sentence were, The horse 
was drinking water, the pupil could infer that the word 
was water f because a horse drinks nothing else. 

When the entire selection has been mastered by the 
class through silent study, it may be read orally; not 
one sentence at a time, but by groups of sentences, or 
thought units. 

The second half-year 

The general methods of the first half-year should be 
continued. The stronger pupils ought to have read by 
the close of the year at least two primers and two easy 
first readers. In addition several other primers and 
first readers should be available for individual reading 
at the seat. 

Grade II 

Pupils in the second grade take pleasure in reading 
independently of the teacher. In general, they are able 
to progress rapidly if too many difficulties are not en- 
countered at the same time, and if they have access 
to several easy first readers. Besides the basal reader, 
three or four other first and second readers should be 
read by the stronger pupils. 

A lesson that is to be studied should be assigned as 
a whole, generally by questions or suggestions written 
on the blackboard. According to the teacher's judg- 



ENGLISH 31 

ment, the pupils may or may not write answers to these 
questions. 

A short, spirited, interesting discussion may precede 
the oral rendering of a lesson that has been assigned 
for study. First the children should talk about the 
story as a whole. What is it about? Who can tell us 
in the fewest words? Then, Who is it about? Who is 
Teddy? Who is Betty? How do you think Teddy 
looks? Does the story tell whether he has brown eyes 
or blue eyes? Suppose he has brown eyes. Does it tell 
whether he has freckles? It is summer and he plays out 
of doors a great deal. Do you think he has freckles? 
How old is Betty? Does the story tell exactly? She 
does n't go to school. She is too little to go fishing with 
Teddy. Do you think she is six? Where does it tell 
that Teddy goes fishing? In this discussion the pro- 
nunciation, meaning, and use of words may be taught 
also. 

After this examination of the thought, the oral 
reading may follow in the same or the next reading 
period. 

Not all reading lessons, however, should be of this 
thorough sort, for one of the purposes of the teacher is 
to train a pupil to use a book intelligently by himself, 
to master the thought independently and quickly. 
There should be, therefore, frequent exercises in silent 
reading, not followed by oral reading, but by spirited 
questioning that does not go too much into detail. Its 
aim is to bring out the salient points, to make sure that 



32 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

the silent reading has given a grasp of the selection as 
a whole. 

The work that a pupil does at his seat is no less im- 
portant than what he does in class. The habits of 
study formed in these early years will certainly either 
help or retard his future student life. The teacher must 
not be misled into the belief that the pupils will nat- 
urally apply in their private study the good methods of 
work that are employed in the recitation period. Most 
children, when left to themselves, will do as most grown 
people do. They follow the path of least resistance, 
and that is seldom the path of systematic, analytic 
study. The teacher, then, will need to teach the pupils 
how to set themselves tasks. Some of the following 
suggestions may be helpful : — 

Make a list of new words. Tell how many incidents it 

Of the people in the story. contains. 

Of words hard to pronounce. Compare it with another 

Of words hard to spell. story, and give reasons for 

Of places in the story. preferring one or the other. 

Of birds, flowers, or trees. Tell which person you like 

Suggest a different title for best, and give reasons, 
the story. 

Grade III 

It is at this point that in many schools the definite 
work of the first two grades in reading gives place to 
the indefiniteness generally characteristic of the read- 
ing in the grammar grades. This indefiniteness is in 
purpose, in method, and in quantity. 



ENGLISH 33 

Purpose. The teacher should aim to make each 
pupil independent, within the limit of his ability, in 
silent reading, recognizing the secondary importance 
of oral reading. To this end, he should be trained to 
attack new words methodically and with courage. He 
should be encouraged to look for the important, the 
large thought in what he reads. He should be helped 
to cultivate his own taste and exercise his own judg- 
ment, no matter how immature that judgment may be. 

Method. In reading a sentence, pupils should by 
this time have been trained to read by groups of words, 
the grouping of words and phrases being determined 
by the thought. Training to this end should be con- 
tinued. It is thoughts that are being read through the 
words. And because this is true, the reading of a selec- 
tion also should be by groups of paragraphs, rather 
than sentence by sentence. If through silent reading 
and discussion the entire story is in mind, it will be 
natural and easy for teacher and pupils to think and 
read the story units, rather than haphazard broken 
fragments. 

In a consideration of method in reading, the impor- 
tance of posture ought not to be overlooked, for this 
has a positive influence on mental control. There may 
be no good reason for insisting that pupils always stand 
when they read, but there is every reason to insist on 
good posture whether the pupil is sitting or standing. 

Quantity. As to the quantity of reading that may 
properly be planned for the third year of school, it 



34 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

may be said that by the end of the year children who 
are not hampered by their customary use of a foreign 
language ought to be able to read nearly everything 
within the range of their individual or related expe- 
riences. This would mean that they will have a read- 
ing vocabulary of about one thousand words, and an 
ability to read intelligently much that contains scat- 
tered words outside of their reading vocabulary. That 
is, they should be able, after silent reading, to give the 
gist of reading matter within the thought limit referred 
to even though the meaning of some of the words must 
be inferred. In acquiring this degree of mastery over 
the printed page, pupils will need to read, in the course 
of the year, a basal reader and from four to eight others, 
besides the numerous simple and interesting books 
"read at the seat and at home on which reports have 
been made in class. 

Grades IV-VI 

Doubtless the judgment of some reliable students 
of education that, on the whole, the graduates from 
the grammar schools of this country have realized only 
a small fraction of their possible reading ability is not 
far wrong. For this deficiency the responsibility rests 
largely with the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades. 

The charge cannot be made that insufficient time 
is given to reading, for ample time is devoted to it. 
The trouble lies in ignoring the preeminent impor- 
tance of training in right habits of study; that is, in 



ENGLISH 35 

thoughtful silent reading. Many teachers are almost 
entirely absorbed in oral reading, and this has led 
to an undesirable type of reading lesson common in 
schools. 

Under this method one pupil after another rises and 
reads one or two paragraphs without previous study; 
and then states, either in his own words or those of the 
book, the fragment he has read. Incidentally, a few 
mispronounced words are corrected, a few inflections 
and emphases are modified, and possibly some para- 
graphs are re-read. After the selection has been read 
in this way, the entire story is occasionally reproduced 
by one or more pupils. 

This method reminds one of the vigorous Scotch- 
Canadian dominie who put his class through their 
paces on Lochinvar. The dominie had a passion for 
correct inflection, and the first luckless youth got only 
as far as the line, "But ere he alighted at Netherby 
gate" — before the master's stern "Next, read!" 
stopped him. Two or three more, ensnared by the 
rhythm of the ballad, accented the ere and likewise 
went down. Exasperated, the dominie brought down 
his birch ruler upon the desk. 

"But ere!" he cried, "but ere! Scholars! what 
the mischief is but ere? Is that the French for 
butter?" 

Picturesque though this method may be in the hands 
of a seasoned teacher, its unfitness for training in good 
reading has been referred to before. It is particularly 



36 



THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 



important that intermediate and grammar grade 
teachers realize the unfortunate results that follow its 
use. By this procedure the story is pulled to pieces be- 
fore it is comprehended as a whole, and later the whole 
is reproduced, generally with little attention to the 
relation of the pieces. Mental energy is focused upon 
the mechanical elements of reading, and the greater 
attention is directed to the least important of these, 
namely, to inflection, to emphasis, to the the's, a's, and 
and's. Such a method continued for several years 
must inevitably retard the development of thought- 
getting ability — the 
prerequisite of good 
reading. 

If, then, thought- 
getting is the vital ele- 
ment in reading, those 
methods must be used 
that lay stress on it 
and that are devised 
to develop skill in it. 
Because teachers are 
realizing this, they are 
giving silent reading 
and the study of the se- 
lection to be read much 
more attention than formerly. The relative place of 
silent and oral reading in these and the other grades 
of school may be roughly indicated by the diagram. 




Comparison of amount of oral and silent 
reading advisable in the various grades. 



ENGLISH 37 

The study and silent reading lesson 
The same principles are true in these grades and the 
same methods apply that were pointed out in the dis- 
cussion of methods for primary grade teachers. (See 
pages 12—23.) But the methods must be adapted to 
grammar grade pupils. The teacher must constantly 
try to check scattered and superficial thinking. He 
must constantly remember that the pupil's mind should 
be trained to look for something definite; that he must 
be taught to select, compare, judge, exclude, appropri- 
ate, put together, and draw conclusions from what he 
reads. Otherwise he will merely read words mechani- 
cally, his thoughts busy elsewhere, or suspended. 

To teach pupils how to discover this "something 
definite," how to set themselves problems and purposes 
in reading, how to read in such a way that their pur- 
poses will be realized and their problems solved, is the 
function of the study reading lesson with the teacher. 
Silent reading under the direction of the teacher gives 
opportunity for application of the methods used in the 
study lesson, and it should lead to an habitual use of 
the same thoughtful ways of reading when the pupil is 
by himself. 

Several illustrative study lessons with the teacher 
are given here: 1 

1. Subject — Who Killed the Otter's Children? 
Directions written on the board : — 

1 These illustrations are drawn from lessons contributed by 
teachers in New Jersey to the State Monograph on the Teaching of 
Reading. 



38 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

(a) Read the story through rapidly. 

(6) Who did kill the Otter's children? 

(c) Find out what each of these animals did: otter, 
mouse-deer, crayfish, woodpecker, lizard, tortoise, 
king-crab. Be ready to give some idea of where each 
of these animals lives, and how it lives. Did you 
ever see any of them? 

2. Subject — The Stone Cutter. 
Directions written on the board : — 

(a) Read the story through. 

(b) Re-read, finding the places in the story where some- 
thing important happened. 

(c) Name the people in the story. 

(d) Glance through the story hastily and find out how 
many wishes Hofus made. 

(e) What did Hofus learn? 

3. Subject — A Little Hero of Holland. 
Directions written on the board : — 

(a) Read the story through. 

(b) Think of two or three things that one ought to 
know in order to appreciate the story. 

(c) Who was the Little Hero? 

(d) In what paragraph is told the first important hap- 
pening in the story? 

(e) Write on a piece of paper an outline of the story to 
help you in telling it. 

(/) From the story or from the picture, what do you 
think is the meaning of the following words: dike, 
hero, mended, cheery ? 

4. Subject — The Talking Saddle. 
Directions written on the board : — 

(a) Read the story through. 

(b) Who is the chief character in the story? 

(c) What is the first thing we learn of Tip-Top that 
would make an important change in his life? 

(d) If we dramatized the story, how many acts would 
you make, and why? 

(e) Whom in the class would you choose for each 
part? 



ENGLISH 39 

5. Subject — An Incident of the French Camp. 
Directions written on the board : — 
(a) Read the selection through several times. 
(6) Look up in your dictionary the words, waver, vans, 
and three other words whose meaning you are not 
sure you know. Find the meaning that will fit into 
the story. 

(c) Picture in your mind the person who has most to do. 

(d) What is the most important paragraph in the 
story? Explain why you think it is most important. 

These illustrations indicate what is meant by put- 
ting purpose into a reading-lesson assignment. The 
importance of purposeful reading has been empha- 
sized by Dr. F. M. McMurry, 1 who quotes the words 
of John Morley, the eminent English statesman, 
and of Noah Porter, formerly president of Yale Uni- 
versity. Says Mr. Morley: — 

Some great men always before reading a book make a 
short rough analysis of the questions which they expect to 
be answered in it. 

Mr. Porter supplements his statement with this : — 

In reading we do well to propose to ourselves definite ends 
and purposes. The distinct consciousness of some object at 
present before us, imparts a manifold greater interest to the 
contents of any volume. . . . Any one is conscious of this who 
reads a story with the design of telling it to an absent friend ; 
or an essay, or a report, with the design of using the facts or 
arguments in debate; or a poem with the design of review- 
ing its imagery and reciting its finest passages. . . . The 
private history of every self-made man, from Franklin on- 
ward, attests that he selected his books with distinct ref- 
erence to the purposes for which he used them. Indeed, 
the reason why self -trained men so often surpass men who 

1 Eow to Study and Teaching How to Study. 



40 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

are trained by others, in the effectiveness and success of their 
reading, is that they know for what they read and study 
and have definite aims and wishes in all their dealings with 
books. 

To be sure, these are the testimonies of mature, 
scholarly men; but that is all the more reason why 
they are valuable. Reading habits that are recognized 
by successful students as of prime importance for suc- 
cessful reading are habits that should be established 
through the reading done in school. 

The formulation of these reading purposes or prob- 
lems requires the same study and thought as the state- 
ment of an arithmetical problem. In arithmetic, a 
banking transaction presents one type of problem, the 
measurement of quantity another type. In reading, the 
problem should be clear to the mind of the student, 
and the method of attack fully understood. This habit 
of purposeful thinking will awaken and hold the pupil's 
intellectual interest, will guide him in his study of a 
given selection, and will also control the teacher in his 
treatment of a lesson. 

After pupils have had some training in reading under 
the control of problems given by the teacher, they may 
read some selections or chapters or books with the 
purpose of asking certain questions or stating certain 
problems to guide in further study. It is important, 
however, that before assigning a lesson for study with- 
out guidance the teacher is certain the pupils have had 
sufficient previous training in reading with definite 
and varied purposes in mind. 



ENGLISH 41 

Mental preparation 

The examples of lesson assignments that have been 
given also indicate that many selections require a 
mental preparation before they are studied. Children 
have not the maturity and the varied knowledge of 
the scholars whose words have been quoted. These 
men, after years of storing up knowledge and of mental 
training, know what they want before they begin to 
read. Children do not know, and they need to be put 
in the way of acquiring the reading power possessed 
by these men. When, therefore, a selection is to be 
read that calls for knowledge or interests not possessed 
by the pupil, these must be furnished. The mind must 
be opened and stimulated; it must be given a back- 
ground on which it may paint its new pictures. 

This mental preparation may be made in a variety 
of ways. The particular way selected will be deter- 
mined by the teacher's knowledge of the pupils and 
by the nature of the selection. Several ways are here 
suggested : — 

1. The teacher may give the idea of the story to the class 
in his own words, or give a part of the story, leaving the 
climax to be discovered in the reading. 

2. The teacher may tell a similar story or describe a sim- 
ilar situation or experience or ask pupils to do this after 
the reading. 

3. Pupils may be asked to select the passage that they 
prefer to read aloud. 

4. The teacher may read for the class a peculiarly difficult 
passage, making plain by simple explanation or by 
interpretative reading the meaning of the difficult 
words, or of the passage as a whole. 



42 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

5. If the story is located in a foreign land, the pecul- 
iar features of the country and of its life may be re- 
called. 

6. If the story is historic, something of the historic setting 
may be given. 

It is evident that a teacher cannot conduct a reading 
lesson that will be profitable for the pupils without 
preparation. The point and structure of the selection 
must be understood before the lesson. There must be 
a plan clearly in mind before the teaching process 
begins. This does not necessarily mean a written plan. 
But the teacher should know definitely what he ex- 
pects to accomplish in each reading lesson and how he 
intends to proceed. 

The oral reading lesson 

Since it follows that oral reading should be secon- 
dary to silent reading, and that it should follow, not 
precede, discussion and silent reading, let us consider 
its two chief purposes : — 

1. One may read to others to convey the thought of an 
author. Evidently the reader cannot convey the 
thought unless the words are familiar and the ideas 
have been at least partly assimilated. 

2. One may read to a teacher, or a friend, as an exercise 
in learning how to read better. This exercise discloses 
words and passages that are not understood, and faults 
in expression. In this case an audience other than the 
teacher is likely to hinder the learner, and the audience 
is sure to be uninterested, if not bored. 

Unquestionably much of the loss and actual harm 
in the ordinary oral reading lesson comes from an 



ENGLISH 43 

attempt to combine these conflicting purposes. The 
common results are : — 

(a) An inattentive audience of pupils, with a tendency for 
the intelligent members to "read ahead" and "lose 
the place." 

(b) Interpretation first, discussion and understanding 
second. 

(c) Hurried and inadequate helping of the poor reader. 

(d) Little training that results in better oral reading. 

(e) Little or no training that results in better thinking. 
(/) Frequently the training of readers in poor mental 

habits. 

Therefore, all oral reading by pupils should be either 
of matter that has been well studied, or of matter so 
easy that it can be read intelligently without study. 
If there is no good reason for reading a selection aloud, 
it should not be so read. If the meaning or the beauty 
of the selection is best revealed by an oral rendering, 
such an interpretative reading of selected passages will 
help to fix it in the minds of the pupils. 

Of course sight-reading, or oral reading without prep- 
aration, has its place in school as it has its place in 
life, and a similar place in both situations. But no one 
in the family circle would attempt to read aloud a 
magazine article, a poem, or a book so difficult in 
vocabulary and thought that he must read it haltingly. 
He selects that which can be understood and inter- 
preted without previous study. The thought is in a 
well-known field, the style is simple and direct, the 
vocabulary familiar. No hesitating and unintelligible 
reader is long tolerated. 



44 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

In school the same standards apply. Little or no 
sight reading ought to be done unless it can be done 
well. If a selection can be read at sight in a way that 
will hold the attention of the class, then the reader's 
classmates may very properly be asked to close their 
books and listen. Otherwise, the selection should be 
studied. 

Good selections for sight reading may be found in 
new books furnished to lower grades, or in informa- 
tional books of various kinds. The story of Pinocchio, 
for instance, would be greatly enjoyed by sixth or 
even by eighth grade pupils who have not read it. 
The appealing fancies and flowing lines of Field, 
Stevenson, and Riley are enjoyed by children of all 
ages. 

Here it may be noted that the overrating of the 
importance of oral reading in school has led to its 
misuse as a yardstick for measuring a pupil's gen- 
eral mental ability. Success or failure in this has 
too commonly determined a pupil's right to promo- 
tion. 

Many and extensive studies of the comparative 
ability of school children have conclusively proved 
that the use of reading — or of any other single sub- 
ject — as the sole or chief factor in determining pro- 
motion is likely to be unjust alike to some who are 
promoted and to some who are retarded. Moreover 
it would seem to be quite unfair and inconsistent to 
judge a kindergarten child's abilities one day by his 



ENGLISH 45 

mental and his physical control, by his initiative and 
leadership, by his intelligence in solving the prob- 
lems of the kindergarten activities ; and on the next 
day when he has but crossed the threshold into 
a room labeled "First Grade" to judge him solely 
by his ability in oral reading. If the practical activi- 
ties are valid measures of ability in the kindergar- 
ten, they ought not to be ignored in the subsequent 
grades. 

That oral reading is likely to be a misleading indi- 
cator of general ability is illustrated by a recent report 
from the Laboratory of Experimental Education of the 
University of Chicago. A teacher was requested to 
select for experiment three second-year pupils. She 
chose A, one of the best oral readers in the class; B, 
a medium reader; and C, one of the poorest. After the 
experiment, the regular teacher was asked how these 
children stood in their other school work. She stated 
that A, the best reader, was much below the average in 
all her other school work, had no initiative, and could 
never be depended upon to do a piece of work. B, the 
medium reader, was also below the average, but was 
a good faithful plodder. C, the poor reader, was above 
the average in all her other school work and always 
took the initiative. 

All experienced teachers have doubtless had many 
such pupils, fluent in oral reading, but grading "aver- 
age" or "poor" in other particulars; and also many 
who are poor oral readers but are substantial thinkers 



46 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

and efficient in practical ways. All will agree that 
ability to think is more useful than ability to say 
words. The former, therefore, should receive the 
larger recognition and be given the greater credit in 
school. 

Grades VII and VIII 

Pupils beginning the seventh year of school should 
have had practice in "true reading." If they have not 
had this practice, the work that can be done in the last 
years of the elementary grades must necessarily be on 
a. lower plane, and consist largely in giving this prac- 
tice. It sometimes — possibly frequently — happens 
that pupils reach this point in school so lacking in 
reading skill that it may be said that they cannot read. 
For such all other purposes ought to be subordinated 
to that of teaching them to read before they leave 
school. 

What to read 

The selection of reading matter for these grades is 
often a vexing problem. Pupils' tastes and their 
ability to read cannot be ignored, neither should they 
be used as the sole guides. Probably no two people 
would agree in their selection of those books that best 
represent the limited body of literature with which all 
elementary school children should become somewhat 
familiar. The following list was drawn from a large 
number of courses of reading for seventh and eighth 



ENGLISH 47 

grades, and represents therefore the judgment of many 
teachers on this subject : l 

Baldwin Story of Roland. 

Story of Siegfried. 

Bunyan Pilgrims Progress. 

Burroughs Birds and Bees.' 

Sharp Eyes. 

Clemens Prince and Pauper. 

Cooper The Spy. 

Last of the Mohicans. 

Dana Two Years before the Mast. 

Dickens Christmas Carol. 

David Copperfield. 

Cricket on the Hearth. 

Franklin Autobiography. 

Hale The Man without a Country. 

Hawthorne The Great Stone Face. 

Hughes Tom Brown's School Days. 

Irving Sketch Book. 

Legend of Sleepy Hollow. 

Kipling Captains Courageous. 

Lamb Tales from Shakespeare. 

Longfellow Evangeline. 

Miles Standish's Courtship. 

Lowell Vision of Sir Launfal. 

Macaulay Horatius at the Bridge. 

* Scott Lady of the Lake. 

Ivanhoe. 
Shakespeare Julius C&sar. 

Merchant of Venice. 

Stevenson Treasure Island. 

Whittier Snow-Bound. 

In this list there appears to be no reference to the 
so-called "reading book/' composed of miscellaneous 
literary selections and fragments of selections. These, 

1 See Elementary School Teacher, December, 1913. 



48 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

however, should not be discarded. The testimony of 
adults regarding the value of a good collection of this 
character in their early school life is too general to be 
ignored. One or two such miscellaneous readers should 
be available for seventh and eighth grade classes. No 
set number of pages should be prescribed for each class, 
however; for it may be best for some classes to make 
slight use of them while others will profit by a larger 
reliance on them. 

Newspapers and magazines also should have a 
limited place in school reading, but it is questionable 
whether time should be given to these in the regular 
reading period. The place for them is rather in the 
geography, the history, and the current events periods. 
In any case, they should be used with discrimination. 
The teacher should try to cultivate good judgment on 
the part of the pupils in selecting extracts for reading. 
Newspapers particularly cannot be used too generally 
in school, because of the indiscriminate nature of the 
"news" they contain. On the other hand, many 
selected articles may be of great help in stimulating 
interest and throwing a present-day light on large 
human questions. 

It will interest the pupils, too, to give them some 
idea of how news is gathered and how this reading 
matter, hot from the press, is made. If possible, it 
would be a good plan to take the pupils to visit the 
plant of a metropolitan newspaper. The orderly con- 
fusion of the "local room"; the nervous clatter of 



ENGLISH 49 

the typewriters turning out the copy for to-morrow's 
paper; the intricate puzzle of the composing room 
where the copy is cut into slips, or "takes," and dis- 
tributed among a dozen linotype operators; the de- 
liberate swiftness of the great cylinder presses flinging 
out the fresh printed pages — all these give the child 
a new conception of the importance of the page that 
he reads. 

How to read 

Another suggestion that may be drawn from the 
experience and observations of scholars and teachers 
relates to method. Three writers of authority may be 
quoted on this point. Bacon's dictum is familiar : — 

Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and 
some few are to be chewed and digested : that is, some books 
are to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read 
wholly, and with diligence and attention. 

Dr. Hall carries this idea a step further, when he 
speaks of the comparative value of the reading and 
the study of a book : — 

The current detailed study of a few standard texts I be- 
lieve to be often pernicious. To be intensive, reading must 
be extensive. There should always be a glow and heat about 
it. To study Ivanhoe, instead of passing on to others of 
Scott's novels, is working with dulled tools. Did this critical 
study ever prompt a student to read another of the same 
author? 

How many of us have thoroughly disliked the Mer- 
chant of Venice because of the laborious hours we 
spent analyzing the characteristics of Portia; decid- 



50 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

ing how many times truth was exemplified on a page, 
and how many times beauty was displayed; and count- 
ing the number of Anglo-Saxon words in Jessica's be- 
witching "On such a night" speech! How many of us 
would have enjoyed plucking up one of the Stones of 
Venice and heaving it at the unoffending shade of 
Ruskin ! Now that it is our turn to sit in the teacher's 
chair, let us remember our past experiences and be 
merciful. 

Chubb says : — 

If much labor on words, constructions, allusions and so 
forth (those precious minutiae) is needed in order that a work 
may be understood, then it is mischosen for the grade. 

The chief recommendation here is to cover a some- 
what extended field of reading rather than to con- 
sume the time and energy of the pupil on exhaustive 
studies. In the previously given list of books to be 
read there are none that Bacon would have classed 
among those worthy of being "chewed and digested." 
Rather, they are of the sort to be "tasted" or "swal- 
lowed." Pupils are being trained in the diligent and 
curious study of books in their mathematics, history, 
hygiene, and other textbook subjects. In the reading 
lesson, let the aim be to awaken in them a genuine love 
of reading and to lead them into the broad fields of 
good literature. 

It follows that not the largest part of the class 
time can be devoted to oral reading, and that no large 
fraction of the literature time of any one term can 



ENGLISH 51 

be allotted to any one poem or book. The class time 
should be given to directing and discussing methods of 
reading, testing the quality of thought put into private 
study, reporting on impressions and points of view 
gained by pupils in private study, and to the reading 
of selected passages orally — some selected and read 
orally by pupils, some by the teacher. Some books 
should be allotted only one period for discussion; 
others may call for two or three periods; but few, if 
any, books or poems will return a profitable yield for 
an expenditure of eight or more lessons. 

The effects of this sort of study of literature are 
somewhat intangible and difficult to measure. Still, 
they may be perceived. There should be a broadening, 
a deepening, an enriching of the personal experience 
through this contact with literature. Pupils should 
grow in their liking for reading. They should show 
reading preferences — not necessarily the teacher's 
preferences. Their other studies should show the 
effects of the mental training received in the reading 
lessons; their compositions should have refinements 
that would be lacking but for this appreciative study 
of the writings of the masters of composition. These 
effects may not be perceptible from day to day, but 
they should be evident from term to term not only in 
the class as a whole, but in varying degrees in each 
pupil. 



52 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

Memorizing 

A store of memorized selections is another most de- 
sirable product of the study of literature. A small boy 
was once required to wait for an hour or two while his 
elders were busy elsewhere. 

"There isn't a thing for you to play with," re- 
flected auntie worriedly. "You'll be bored to death, 
Jimmy." 

"Oh, no," said he with quaint gravity. "You see, 
I like to play with my mind." 

Jimmy had been fortunate in having a mother who 
put him to sleep in his baby days with old Scotch 
ballads, said or sung. Before he could walk, he was 
familiar with Lord Ullin's Daughter, and Sir Patrick 
Spens, and almost as soon as he could talk he began 
to learn such things as the simpler bits from A Child* s 
Garden of Verse and Christina Rossetti's child poems. 

The memorizing of good verse should begin in the 
first grade and continue through the course. The selec- 
tions should be made, first for their intrinsic worth, 
and second for their beauty and their appeal to the 
particular grade and the individual pupil. One child 
may revel in quaint fancies, like : — 

I met a little elfman once, 
Down where the lilies blow. 
I asked him why he was so small, 
And why he did n't grow? 

He slightly frowned, and with his eye 
He looked me through and through. 

"I'm quite as big for me," he said, 

"As you are big for you!" 



ENGLISH 53 

Another may scorn John Kendrick Bangs and his elf, 
preferring to order up the halberdiers and let the port- 
cullis fall! Many a knightly heart beats high under a 
polka-dotted pinafore. 

It is of primary importance that a pupil under- 
stand the thought before beginning to commit a se- 
lection to memory. He may not appreciate fully the 
significance of every passage, but it should convey 
sense to his intelligence, or he should not learn it. 

Pupils should be taught how to memorize a selec- 
tion. They should first view it as a whole and feel 
its beauty through the teacher's reading. Together, 
teacher and pupils will resurvey it for the story. The 
teacher will help the pupils to visualize the pictures 
and to view incidents and descriptions in the light of 
their own experience. The selection will then be 
learned, not word by word, but by groups of words as 
they express the thoughts. Children will often learn 
poems at their play. Two seven-year old girls on the 
back porch were overheard one day teaching Wynken, 
Blynken and Nod to each other and to their dolls. One 
child supplemented the other, each learning carefully 
the lines she did not have by heart, and subsequently 
"teaching" the poem to a row of dolls, who frequently 
needed to be spanked for stupidity. 

Short selections are better than long ones for memo- 
rizing, and differences in pupils' ability to memorize 
words should be taken into account by the teacher 
when he is assigning this work. 



54 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

Time allotment 

For the reasonable accomplishment of these results 
from the study of literature, a large amount of class 
time is not required. Three periods per week of thirty- 
minutes each is enough, when the importance of litera- 
ture is put over against the many other studies and 
interests of the school that demand attention. A bal- 
ance in the pupils' school life should be maintained. 
Neither the literary enthusiasm nor the literary in- 
difference of the supervisor or of the teacher should 
operate to disturb this balance. 

Use of libraries 

But the reading books and all the other textbooks 
combined cannot supply the amount of reading matter 
that children should have. The library is an indis- 
pensable adjunct of the school. Of all possible libra- 
ries, the most important is the home library; but it 
is likely to be wanting where most needed. In many 
homes there are no books at all. In others, the book- 
case is filled with the publications of former genera- 
tions typified by Dr. Dosem's Complete Family Phy- 
sician, Upham's Life of Faith, E. P. Roe's novels, and 
the Proceedings of various societies. 

The most useful for school purposes is the school 
library. No schoolroom should be without a set of 
books adapted to the tastes and capacities of the 
pupils and large enough to allow a new book to each 



ENGLISH 55 

child at least once in four weeks through the school 
year. This library should contain a few books that 
bear upon the school studies. It should have an honor- 
able place in the schoolroom and should be kept free 
from dust and in good condition. Pupils will gain much 
valuable training if they are taught to care for this 
library and to act in turn as librarian. 

A schoolroom library that is changed from time to 
time is doubtless better than one which is permanently 
fixed. Sets of books may generally be borrowed from 
a near-by town or city library, or from the state library. 
In rural districts, when loan libraries cannot be had, 
small sets of books, purchased with funds locally raised, 
could be moved from school to school, so that in the 
course of a year each pupil in the district might have 
the benefit of all the books. 

Undoubtedly, most of the reading of library books 
should be done at home. Freedom to use story-books 
in school is a temptation to neglect the proper study 
of lessons. Home reading should be encouraged and to 
a degree influenced. The time of a regular reading or 
oral composition lesson may be devoted with profit 
occasionally to a discussion of books read at home. If 
a pupil is found to be reading too much, and to be 
absorbed in the amusement type of book, the teacher 
may often interest him in more substantial reading. 
The omnivorous reader may be the superficial one, 
although this is not always true. Superficiality in 
many cases is the result of neglect by elders. 



56 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

In schools where there is not an adequate supply of 
reading matter, the school library may be drawn upon 
for class work. Each pupil may be assigned, or may 
select, a book upon which a report will be given in 
class, and from which selections may be read aloud. 
Thus the class as a whole will come to have a slight 
acquaintance with more authors and books than any 
one pupil will read. In the upper grades these reports 
may take the form of short book reviews, a composition 
exercise that will give variety to the pupils' written 
exercises and interest them in the book-reviewing de- 
partments of daily papers and magazines. 

While the home and the school libraries are much 
more useful and more generally useful for school chil- 
dren, yet the public library, by reason of its large 
resources, its variety of reference books, and its card 
indexes, is a place that they ought to know well. Pupils 
may be sent there to gather material for debates, for 
information not found in their own books, and to read 
the biographies of the authors whose works they are 
studying. They may also borrow other books by the 
same authors, for it is desirable that, while studying 
literature, pupils should be making friends of the 
writers of literature. They should have favorite au- 
thors as well as favorite books and poems. 

While literature has been in mind for the most part 
in discussing seventh and eighth grade reading, it will 
not be forgotten that other interests besides those 
which are literary may draw pupils to the library. In 



ENGLISH v 57 

a school made up of practical-minded pupils of these 
grades, the reading habit grew out of their manual 
training interests. Catalogues of tool-manufacturing 
concerns, of paint and hardware supply houses, of 
furniture and boat manufacturers, were sent for. Sets 
of twenty of the best of these were secured for class 
use. Before long, one member of the class after an- 
other found his way to the library in search of books 
and magazines relating to arts and industries. 

There is perhaps no better summary of this entire 
chapter on the teaching of reading in the elementary 
schools than the words of James Russell Lowell on the 
use of libraries and books. The writing of the chapter 
has been for the sole purpose of indicating the means 
and methods by which these universally desired re- 
sults may be attained. 

After all, the better part of every man's education is that 
which he gives himself, and it is for this that a good library 
should furnish the opportunity and the means. 

For remember that there is nothing less profitable than 
scholarship for the mere sake of scholarship, nor anything 
more * wearisome in the attainment. But the moment you 
have a definite aim, attention is quickened, the mother of 
memory, and all that you acquire groups and arranges itself 
in an order that is lucid, because everywhere and always it 
is in intelligent relation to a central object of constant and 
growing interest. This method also forces upon us the neces- 
sity of thinking, which is, after all, the highest result of all 
education. For what we want is not learning, but knowl- 
edge; that is, the power to make learning answer its true end 
as a quickener of intelligence and a widener of our intellec- 
tual sympathies. 



58 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

Reading tests 

In view of the large place that reading holds in 
school, it is natural that the subject of reading tests 
and reading standards should be occupying the serious 
attention of students of education. Standards of pen- 
manship were the first to be formulated. Then fol- 
lowed standards of high-school composition writing; 
and of elementary arithmetic; and of a somewhat in- 
definite sort there are standards of spelling. None of 
these is yet final, none of them is universally recognized 
as valid, and few teachers have the training to apply 
them scientifically. But they tend to influence school 
practice and teachers' judgments, as a "governor" 
influences the action of a machine and the interaction 
of its parts. And they will have this influence more 
and more, reducing overspeeding, accelerating to 
efficiency-speed, regulating to capacity-production. 

But while these standards and tests in reading are 
being formulated, the less scientific tests should not 
be neglected. If it is not yet possible to state what 
pupils ought to be able to read at any given time, every 
teacher may make sure that each pupil has made prog- 
ress in a term or a half year; or, if little or no progress 
has been made, the probable reasons are discoverable. 
Therefore tests to measure progress should be given at 
definite times. If these are too frequent, progress will 
not be evident; if they are given but once a year, they 
are less helpful as guides for the teacher. 



ENGLISH 59 

These tests should be on each point that is impor- 
tant in good reading. There should be a test on study 
habits to discover whether or not each pupil reads with 
a purpose and analytically when he reads by himself, 
independent of guidance. Ability to grasp the main 
point or points by silent reading should be tested, and 
the speed with which this is done. Finally, there should 
be tests in oral reading for pronunciation, fluency and 
expression, with relatively simple matter selected for 
this particular purpose. 

COLLATERAL READING 

1. On some questions relating to reading: — 

(a) The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. E. B. Huey. 

Introduction, pages 10-11. 
(&) The Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the 
Study of Education. 

Part I, pages 17; and 147-51. 

2. On oral and silent reading: — 

(a) The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. E. B. Huey. 

Chapter XVIII, pages 359-61. 
(&) Culture, Discipline and Democracy. A. Duncan Yocum. 

Chapter V, pages 152-56. 
(c) Social Education. C. A. Scott. 

Chapter IX, pages 214-21. 
3 t On teaching reading as thought: — 

Teaching the Language Arts. B. A. Hinsdale. 

4. On literary appreciation: — 

The Appreciation of Literature. George E. Woodbury. 
Chapters I and VII. 

5. On the rate of reading: — 

(a) The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. E. B. Huey. 

Chapter IX. 

(&) The Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the 
Study of Education 
Part I, pages 44-58. 

6. On the use of the library: — 

The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. E. B. Huey. 
Chapter XVIII, pages 365-70. 



60 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

7. On dramatization: — 

The Dramatic Method of Teaching. Harriet Finlay-Johnson. 
Chapter VII. 

8. Primary seat-work: — 

Teaching Children to Study. Olive M. Jones. 
Chapter IX; Chapter XIII, pages 175-89. 

9. Type lessons for the eighth grade: — 

The Teaching of English (The Elementary Course). Per- 
cival Chubb. 

Chapter X, pages 161-72. 
Also the following books: — 

Illustrated Phonics. M. I. Ives. 

A manual of physical and voice exercises to correct and improve 
articulation. Fully illustrated. 
Reading in Public Schools. Briggs and Coffman. 

Reports of type-lessons in reading and memorizing actually given in 
the schoolroom. Very suggestive. 
Blackboard Work in Reading. Ida E. Finley. 

An excellent guide for lessons of the first six weeks. Type lessons 
with teaching analyses. 
Teaching Poetry in the Grades. Haliburton and Smith. 
\ Discussion of method and a number of type lessons for each grade. 

Very definite and helpful. 

Common Speech 

First, then, "look well to your speech." It is commonly 
supposed that when a man seeks literary power he goes to his 
room and plans an article for the press. But this is to begin 
literary culture at the wrong end. We speak a hundred 
times for every time we write. The busiest writer produces 
little more than a volume a year, not so much as his talk 
would amount to in a week. Consequently, through speech 
it is usually decided whether a man is to have command of 
his language or not. If he is slovenly in his ninety-nine cases 
of talking, he can seldom pull himself up to strength and 
exactitude in the hundredth case of writing. — (From Self- 
Cultivation in English, by George H. Palmer.) 

Special instruction in language and composition should be 
accompanied by concerted efforts of teachers in all branches 
to cultivate in the student the habit of using good English in 
his recitations and various exercises, whether oral or written. 
— {Harvard College Entrance Requirements, 1915, 1910, 1917, 
1918.) 



ENGLISH 61 

I am a believer above all things in the use of correct, and 
indeed choice, English, and feel that nothing perhaps in the 
matter of salesmanship can conduce to success more directly 
than a large and flexible vocabulary. The ability to drive 
a point home through a variety of ways in saying the same 
thing, which can come only through a free command of va- 
rieties of style of speaking, of synonyms, etc., is a tremendous 
asset, and I would therefore advise you to speak with great 
insistency on the importance of a careful and conscious study 
of one's everyday language, to the end that it may not be- 
come monotonous in style but rich and variegated. — {Letter 
from an American banker.) 



Not only literary power, as Professor Palmer points 
out; not only scholastic success, as is indicated by the 
recommendation of the Examining Board of Harvard 
University; but also social and business advancement, 
as is shown by the words of the man of affairs, depend 
much more than is commonly supposed on the quality 
of one's conversation. If, then, practical considerations 
are to control in the teaching of other phases of English, 
as it has been pointed out they should control in the 
teaching of reading, careful attention must be given to 
thq common speech of pupils. 

Fortunately the elements in common speech that 
are susceptible of improvement by training are not 
numerous. There are certain subtle personal qualities 
that appear to be inherited — such as mental capacity, 
alertness, receptivity, inventiveness, and a sense of 
humor — that may perhaps be cultivated, but cannot 
by any process of training be created. On the other 
hand, a pleasing quality of voice, a good use of words 



62 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

and sentences, and — that which is fundamental to all 
pleasing conversation — a good physical posture, may 
be acquired by instruction and training. 

The teacher's influence 

Because children are children, they reflect to a de- 
gree the teacher's postures and manners, and their 
speech echoes his. If the teacher's attitude in sitting 
and standing is controlled and pleasing; if his voice is 
of good quality; if his English is correct, and free from 
slang and provincialisms, these qualities will become 
evident in the conduct and speech of the pupils. These 
refining influences the teacher can exert without being 
over-nice or pedantic. If his daily walk and conversa- 
tion are not thus influential, precepts and criticisms 
of pupils' faults will be largely in vain. 

Instruction and training 

But this influence, no matter how definite and con- 
tinuous it may be, cannot be relied upon to accomplish 
by itself the desired results. It must be reinforced by 
systematic instruction and an abundance of practice. 

Instruction in the proper use of the voice may be 
given in the reading lessons, but what is taught there 
should be applied throughout the school day. If neces- 
sary, special practice should be given to groups of 
pupils until they habitually open the mouth when 
speaking and produce a clear tone of voice and a dis- 
tinct utterance. 



ENGLISH 63 

Doubtless the enlarging of the working vocabulary 
of pupils, the eradicating of common errors of speech 
and improvement in the use of sentences will be ac- 
complished best in the regular recitations, where, also, 
the specific instruction given in spelling and composi- 
tion periods will be put into practice. 

The pupils themselves will be efficient aids in dis- 
covering their own errors and in devising methods of 
interesting drill upon the correct forms of expression, 
if the teacher will make them his partners. In fact, one 
teacher found to her surprise that this supposedly dry 
and uninteresting feature of language work turned out 
to be the attractive avenue to her composition lessons 
for which she had long been looking. The avenue was 
discovered through a request to teachers from the 
principal of the building to prepare for him lists of their 
pupils' common errors in speech. The lists were to be 
used in making a series of exercises in correct speech 
for the different grades. This teacher explained the 
principal's plan to her fourth grade pupils, and asked 
them if they would like to help collect the errors. They 
agreed that they would, and she then asked how they 
might set about it. She made a suggestion to start 
their thoughts moving, and then they proposed a 
variety of plans. Finally it was decided that each 
pupil was to become a detective for the discovery of 
errors in speech, not only in the schoolroom but on 
the playground as well. For two weeks there was no 
lack of material on which to work. During this time the 



64 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

common errors had been collected, discussed, and the 
correct expressions put upon the board. It was then 
proposed to have each pupil change his character of 
detective into that of a policeman. For another two 
weeks any pupil could politely "hold up" any other 
pupil, or even the teacher, if a mistake was discovered. 
The teacher confessed that she occasionally made a 
mistake in speech and in writing on the board to keep 
up their interest and alertness. One pupil finally pro- 
posed that the different rows compete in correct speech, 
and the plan was worked out by which each row kept 
watch of all the other rows, and all the pupils kept 
watch of the teacher. The records were posted on a 
bulletin at the close of each day. Thus by the end of 
about five weeks these pupils had become thoroughly 
alive to the values in words and sentences, and the 
teacher very wisely dropped this particular feature of 
language training before interest flagged, transferring 
the interest to the composition lessons. 

Specific practice in the use of correct forms of speech 
may be given in brief concert and individual exer- 
cises. These should involve the correct forms only, 
a child, or the class, repeating again and again such 
forms as The boys are here, The boy is here, Mary does n't 
wish to ride, Is n't the baby looking well ? There are six 
of us, I saw the sun set, He ate his dinner. The black- 
board should be used constantly to illustrate and em- 
phasize the correct forms. 

Language games may be employed also. The fol- 



ENGLISH 65 

lowing have been used with profit, and others may be 
thought out by the resourceful teacher: — 

A boy leaves the room. He appears at the door and van- 
ishes. The pupils may say, "I saw John [not "I seen"] at 
the door," repeating it several times. The teacher may draw 
a line, and the pupils may say, "You draw a line," "The line 
was drawn," "You drew a line," and so forth. Pupils may 
make their own statement as they perform actions, as "I lay 
the book on the table " (at the time of doing it), "I lie down," 
"I sit down," and so forth. One pupil may break a stick, and 
another at the board may write, "John has broken the stick," 
or, "The stick was broken," and so on. Nearly all of the 
irregular verbs may be taught in this objective way. 

To illustrate the use of adjectives two of the pupils may 
stand together, and pupils at the board may write, "John is 
the taller of the two," or, "Henry is the tallest of the four 
boys." 

The case forms of pronouns may be taught dramatically. 
One pupil may go outside the door and knock, and another 
may say, "Who is it?" and the first may say, "It is I." 
Then the teacher may say to the school, "Who is it?" and 
the pupils may say, "It is she," "It is he," in reply. 

In the game, "Who is it?" a pupil leaves the room. A 
ball, or some other object, is given to one of the pupils, or by 
a touch the teacher designates one of them as "it." The 
pupil now returns to the room and is to find who has the ball, 
or who has been chosen, by asking, "Who is it? " The teacher 
indicates the row in which the questioning is to begin, other- 
wise too much time may be consumed in finding the one who 
has the ball. Beginning with the first pupil in the row, the 
child asks each in turn, "Who is it?" The pupils reply, "It 
is I," or "It is not I." Another pupil may leave the room 
and on returning may ask the question, "Is it Mary?" "Is it 
George?" and so on. The class reply, "It is she," "It is not 
she," "It is he," as the case may be. 

All that the school may do to improve the speech of 
children will be comparatively ineffective without the 



66 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

cooperation of the home. Some superintendents have 
invited this in circular letters, that explain briefly the 
importance of the right use of English and suggest 
some of the common errors that it is well to avoid. 

Training in the construction of sentences is given in 
the thoughtful forming of answers to questions in reci- 
tations. Not that all answers should be full state- 
ments. To insist on this will produce a stiff, clumsy- 
style of schoolroom English. The standards of good 
conversation should be the standards governing a rec- 
itation. As pupils advance through the grades they 
will have additional training in the use of good Eng- 
lish through dramatization, the topical recitation, and 
reports on home readings, on current events, and on 
school excursions. 

To make the recitation a means of improving the 
pupils' spoken language, the teacher must subordinate 
himself. The recitation must belong to the pupils. 
They must do the talking, not the teacher. Theirs 
must be the responsibility for logically, coherently and 
interestingly presenting the subject or topic before the 
class. Thus through their own abundant use of lan- 
guage, under the control of their own critical judg- 
ment, they will grow in courage and in skill in the 
expression of their thoughts. Progressively their sen- 
tences will be relatively correct; and the use of simple, 
compound and complex sentences in pleasing variety 
will become natural and habitual in all recitations. 

While it may seem that physical posture is more 



ENGLISH 67 

nearly related to conduct and to health than to com- 
mon speech, it is yet unquestionably true that physical 
control of the body has a direct and a positive influence 
on mental control, and that mental control is essential 
to clear and consecutive thinking and speech. There- 
fore, in all other recitations, as well as in the reading 
period, pupils when they rise should stand erect on 
both feet, with head up and hands at the sides of the 
body, and with the body free from the desk. They 
should habitually face the person or persons to whom 
they are talking, as in ordinary conversation. If they 
are seated while talking — and this should be allowed 
often — they should sit without lolling on the desk. 

Language expression has so close a relation to all 
mental processes that training in it will give a more 
general mental stimulus than training in any other 
subject. The story of Helen Keller is the story of the 
awakening and developing of a mind through verbal 
expression. Not until she began to know words and to 
use them did she take interest in the world, understand 
it or enjoy it; and mental growth progressed as train- 
ing in the use of verbal language progressed. But one's 
own personal experience also is available to prove that 
talking about an idea makes the idea clearer and causes 
it to unfold in the mind. Discussing a book gives a 
firmer mental grasp of its contents and impresses the 
ideas on the mind so that they are remembered better. 
Teaching a fact to another, that is, verbally explaining 
it, gives that fact a new significance. The very effort 



68 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

to put a thought into words compels the mind to act 
more carefully and by this greater concentration of 
effort it is strengthened and developed. It is true also 
that mental enjoyments are intensified by expressing 
them. The pleasure derived from an experience, a 
picture, a book is increased by sharing it with a friend. 
So that in spending time and thought upon the im- 
provement of the common speech of pupils, the teacher 
is refining the tone of the school, he is putting his 
pupils into command of their own mental abilities, he 
is enlarging their capacity for enjoyment, and he is cul- 
tivating in them a most practical art. 

If all teachers, both in elementary and in high 
schools, realized the importance of training pupils to 
talk well, every recitation would become an exercise 
in the use of good spoken English. Then there would 
be as vigorous criticism of English in arithmetic and 
geography as in language lessons, and nowhere in the 
school would slovenly English be tolerated. Every 
teacher would be a teacher of English. 

COLLATERAL READING 

1. On language training: — 

(a) How We Think. John Dewey. 

Chapter XIII. 

(b) Teaching the Language Arts. B. A. Hinsdale. 

Chapter III. 

2. Language training through all school subjects: — 

Linguistic Development and Education. M. V. O'Shea. 
Chapter X, pages 242-45, and 258-59. 



ENGLISH 69 

Composition 

Composition and common speech are quite unlike. 
The latter may be fragmentary and disconnected, and 
its purpose may be quite indefinite. On the other hand, 
a composition is a thought and language structure, 
whose parts are carefully arranged and joined accord- 
ing to a plan, the plan itself being determined by a 
definite, preconceived purpose. Composition is the 
solving of language problems, as much as arithmetic is 
the solving of mathematical problems, or as architec- 
ture is the solving of building problems. 

The nature of the particular problem in a composi- 
tion should appear in the title. The more restricted and 
limited the subject, the better it is as a problem. It is 
not enough, for instance, to have for a subject "Ani- 
mals." This is too large, and will lead to miscellaneous 
rambling talk and writing. "Animal Habits," or, 
better still, "Habits of My Pet Dog" will compel 
closer thinking and better composition planning. 

Again, if the subject "Nests" is under discussion 
and a boy can be led to examine real nests by centering 
his interest on one phase of the subject, such as "Nest- 
building," he may be led to interesting and suggestive 
discoveries. One boy, for example, found that a certain 
kind of nest was made of grass, and another largely of 
strings. In his composition he wrote, "The nest with 
the strings, I think, was made in the city. The other 
one was made in the country." 



70 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

In addition to thus limiting the subject and estab- 
lishing a definite point of view, it will be conducive to 
better composition if the question "To whom, or for 
whom, am I writing?" is in the writer's mind. It is 
evident that if a pupil while discussing the habits of a 
pet is trying to interest a younger child, or an uncle 
who is a hunter, or an aunt who is fond of pets, a more 
telling, a more pointed composition will result than if 
he is writing to no one in particular. 

To lead pupils thus to focus their thinking and to 
choose and arrange words so that their ideas are clearly 
and interestingly expressed within prescribed limits, is 
no simple or easy task. Perhaps no other subject pre- 
sents such difficulties for the teacher as does composi- 
tion. In the first place, the available material is as va- 
ried as is human experience. Whatever may be seen, 
heard, or sensed in any way; whatever may be thought 
or felt of pleasure or pain; whatever may be imag- 
ined or fancied; all is proper grist for the composition 
mill. 

Then, there are other difficulties due to the lack of 
widely accepted composition standards. Some may 
approve a given composition, while equally compe- 
tent people may think lightly of it. Again, people, and 
especially children, are naturally careless in the use of 
language, and this has produced undesirable language 
habits and indifference to its thoughtful use. But per- 
haps most serious of all difficulties is the fact that ver- 
bal expression is the highest and most subtle form of 



ENGLISH 71 

expression. Primitive man reveals his simple ideas 
through gesture, facial expression, a few significant 
sounds and crude pictures. Multiplicity of words has 
come with complexity of experiences due to civiliza- 
tion, and for only a few persons does the art of verbal 
composition, and even more particularly written com- 
position, seem to be natural and easy. Most persons, 
and many educated ones at that, never become as 
proficient in writing as in speech. 

But while the limitations of the average mind will 
not allow many to become great writers, nevertheless 
all will profit by intelligent training. In fact, although 
any one composition, or, indeed, all the compositions, 
oral and written, in school may have in themselves no 
value whatever to any one who may listen to or read 
them; yet if the writing of them engages the pupils 
in clear, logical thinking, and in thoughtful expression 
upon definite, limited subjects of immediate interest 
and importance, composition becomes one of the best 
means at the command of the teacher for general men- 
tal training. 

The teacher's place and function 

The immaturity of pupils, a daily program and a 
course of study whose demands are exacting, create a 
situation in which the teacher is tempted to occupy too 
large a place. Too often he talks when the pupils ought 
to talk, and he does the work that they should do. It 
takes more time to train pupils than it does to give 






72 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

them information, and the former is a much more diffi- 
cult task. While in all school activities an attitude of 
self-restraint is maintained by the teacher who is 
ambitious to be most useful to the pupils, this at- 
titude is a fundamental condition for successful 
accomplishment in the teaching of English compo- 
sition, because the composition exercise is not to 
train the teacher in language expression, but to train 
the pupils. He will take his part in the discussion 
only in so far as he is needed to suggest, to direct, to 
inspire, and, at the proper time, to instruct. It is 
hoped that the suggestions that are made in succeed- 
ing pages may be helpful in showing how responsi- 
bility in composition work may thus be transferred 
in part from the teacher to the pupils. 

Oral Composition 

Logically, oral composition precedes written, and it 
is by far the more useful for training in the proper use 
of language. The first thinking on a subject finds its 
natural expression in spoken rather than in written 
words. But the first thinking and expression need 
refining by the process of composing. By oral dis- 
cussion and oral restatement, all the qualities that 
ought to be found in the written composition may be 
developed, such as choice of words, good quality and 
variety of sentences, arrangement of sentences in a 
paragraph, and arrangement of related paragraphs. 
Moreover, as has been emphasized before, oral com- 



ENGLISH 73 

position has a greater influence in improving common 
speech, than has written composition. While the gen- 
eral recognition of the proper place of oral composition 
in language study is comparatively recent, its use is 
to-day growing very rapidly even in high schools. 

The oral composition lesson requires more teaching 
ability than the old-fashioned lesson consisting of the 
assignment of subjects upon which pupils were to write 
without preparation. The teacher's task in such an 
exercise was laboriously to mark mistakes in each 
paper, generally in the evening hours, and the next day 
to have the papers rewritten with the mistakes cor- 
rected. This wasteful and uninteresting procedure is 
rapidly giving way to the more effective methods by 
which composition skill is developed through oral ex- 
pression and oral criticism, and pupils are trained in 
the habit of self-criticism. Self-criticism, discussed in 
another place, makes of each pupil a discoverer and a 
corrector of his own mistakes, leaving the teacher free 
to become in the true sense a teacher. 

To illustrate how these results may be realized 
through oral composition, several exercises are here 
described, selected from the four divisions or classes of 
composition: narration, description, exposition, and 
argumentation. While it is not important for pupils 
in the lower grades to know that they are composing 
now a narrative, and now a description, it is well for 
the teacher to understand these various types so that 
balance and variety may be given to the year's work. 



74 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

Narrations 

In narration, the teacher will have exercises in con- 
versation, in story-telling, in relating incidents, hap- 
penings, and biographies. 

Conversation exercises cannot be engaged in by the 
entire class at the same time. Three to six pupils 
should be selected, who may take seats at the front of 
the room. The conversation is on a subject that has 
been agreed on beforehand, and it progresses as in 
ordinary life, helped and guided by the teacher. 

A fifth-grade teacher, who was allowing her pupils, 
one after the other, to rise and "say something," as 
she explained, did not realize the limitations of this 
exercise. One pupil remarked on the weather, another 
on the illness of his cat, another on a book he was read- 
ing. Such a language lesson could have no other effect 
than to confirm habits of scattered thinking and of 
rambling talk. 

A fourth-grade teacher was more skillful who asked 
at the close of school one day, "How many of you have 
a canary bird at home?" As she expected and hoped, 
some had such a pet and others had not. She then said, 
"To-morrow, those who have a canary will have the 
opportunity to talk about it. In the mean time please 
think over what you would like to say that will interest 
those who do not have one." 

The next day in the language-lesson period three 
pupils who had canaries and three who had not were 



ENGLISH 75 

invited to take seats in the front of the room. The 
teacher joined the group and began the conversation 
by remarking that, when she was a little girl, she had a 
yellow-and- white canary that sang very sweetly. The 
children took up the teacher's thought and talked very 
naturally for about five minutes with little additional 
help or guidance. This conversation formed the basis 
of a blackboard composition, worked out by the class 
in the same period, and this in turn was the model for 
a written paragraph at a later time. 

Fables and stories that have been used for story- 
telling may furnish material for dialogues, the pupils 
impersonating the characters or letting the characters 
tell their own story in the form of conversation. 

Composing conversations between animals or plants 
that have been personified is also an interesting exer- 
cise. For instance, a father and a mother bird may dis- 
cuss the location and building of a nest and the coming 
of the little birds. An evergreen tree and an oak may 
talk about the coming of winter or of spring. 

Conversation exercises are more difficult to conduct 
profitably in the upper grades than in the lower, be- 
cause pupils in those grades are more self-conscious. 
Unless the teacher can see that the pupils are getting 
real training in the thoughtful use of language, it is 
well to employ this exercise sparingly. In any case, 
the conversations should be brief. 

Story-telling exercises are somewhat easier to con- 
duct, although there are not a large number of suitable 



76 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

stories for children to tell. Dr. Hosic has given an 
admirable description of the stories adapted to this 
purpose . l He writes : — 

Such stories should be (1) brief; (2) simple in structure 
and motive; (3) full of action and imagination; (4) the lan- 
guage appealing to the senses; (5) the story moving speedily 
forward; (6) each incident fully developed; (7) the ending 
definite and satisfying; (8) the appeal to the emotions direct 
and vivid. For the youngest children, folk-tales, carefully 
selected, best fulfill the conditions. Later, use may be made 
of the fables, the myths and legendary stories, and, to a lim- 
ited extent, of stories by modern authors, particularly of 
animals. With regard to all traditional stories the greatest 
care should be exercised to secure the best possible version. 

The first characteristic, brevity, is not the least im- 
portant. It is not well to let a pupil tell a story that 
requires ten to fifteen minutes, nor to have the exercise 
degenerate into an exhibition of two or three children 
who have a good memory. Used thus, story -telling has 
little value for training in language. On the other hand, 
if the stories are short and well chosen, and if each 
pupil takes part in the exercise, much will be gained in 
confidence, in ability to hold the mind to one train of 
thought, and in familiarity with new words. 

Story-telling that is merely a reproduction of stories 
which have been learned should have a relatively small 
place in language lessons, and pupils should not be 
asked to reproduce these until they have become fa- 
miliar through the teacher's repeated rendering. By 
1 J. F. Hosic, Elementary Course in English. 



ENGLISH 77 

questions and suggestions they may be led to see the 
parts of the story distinctly and to feel their relation. 
If studied in this way, the reproduction of stories may 
be the best possible preparation for the composing of 
original ones. 

Material for original stories is on every hand. How- 
ever, it is safest not to leave the child entirely to his 
own devices, but to give him some suggestions. He 
should certainly not be asked to write an original story 
until he has had considerable practice in telling short 
ones of his own invention before the class. A good ex- 
ercise is to have the whole class contribute to the first 
stories, the teacher or some pupil furnishing an incident 
or plot for elaboration by the pupils. 

A fourth-grade class had learned and reproduced 
the fable of The Wind and The Sun. As class exercises 
they had invented fables that were similar, and had 
proposed several subjects, upon one of which each 
was to make a story of his own. One boy wrote the 
following: 

The North Star and the Moon 

The North Star and the Moon had a dispute as to which 
was the stronger. As they were talking a traveler passed by. 
They agreed that the one that would make the traveler stop 
the soonest would be called the stronger. 

So the Moon tried first, and he hid behind a cloud, but the 
traveler did not stop. So he called to the North Star, "Now 
try your strength," So the North Star hid behind a cloud, 
and the traveler stopped, because he did not know which way 
he was going. And the North Star was called the stronger. 



78 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

The synopsis of a story like this from Bulwer Lyt- 
ton's The Caxtons may be given to pupils : — 

A little boy in a spirit of mischief breaks a beautiful flower- 
pot belonging to his mother. When questioned by his father 
he frankly confesses his fault. He makes reparation by sell- 
ing a much-loved box of dominoes and buying his mother 
another pot precisely like the one he had broken. 

Under the teacher's direction, the class may recast 
the story, adding details that would make it more in- 
teresting, as : — 

Imagine you are the boy. Describe your father sitting on 
the lawn. Tell the kind of day. Describe the flower-pot. 
Picture your mother's distress. Give her words and your 
father's questions. Tell your own thoughts and give your 
answer. Describe your box of dominoes and tell how you 
prize them. Give the conversation between your father and 
yourself about selling the dominoes. Describe the walk to 
town, the visits to the stores and the selling of the toy. Tell 
what your mother said when you gave her the new flower-pot, 
and your answer. 

After the children have told their stories, and perhaps 
written fragments of them, the original story may be 
read to the class. 

Occasionally pictures may be distributed to one row 
of pupils. After giving a few moments for study, each 
may tell first the facts shown in the picture and then 
briefly relate an original story suggested by it, giving 
names to the persons and describing their appearance. 
The pupils will have little trouble in making chrono- 
logical arrangement of their material, and in their pre- 
liminary lessons they will have noted that all stories 



ENGLISH 79 

give answers to the questions, Who ? When ? Where ? 
What ? By what means ? 

A fourth-grade girl wrote the following after a class 
study of the picture which is referred to : — 

A Picture Lesson 

We are studying a picture of a brave knight whose name is 
Sir Galahad. The looks in his face tell me he is loyal, brave 
and true. How pure he looks ! 

He is wearing a suit of steel armor. Sir Galahad's helmet 
and shield are thrown over his back. His sharp blade hangs 
by his side. He is standing by his beautiful white horse in the 
forest. 

He has been on a journey and is going back to Arthur's 
court. He stopped to let his horse rest awhile. He is thinking 
of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. 

The relating of incidents or happenings experienced 
and observed at home or on the street, on school ex- 
cursions, in the school shop and domestic science 
rooms, in the school and home garden is in reality a 
form of story-telling. As in story-teTing, the first ex- 
ercises are properly reproductions of some incidents 
told or read by the teacher. The qualities of an inter- 
esting incident will be discussed. Pupils will be led to 
see that an incident should have a point, a beginning, 
a middle, and an end. At the outset, something may be 
said about the time, place and principal characters. 
Then the events may be told in the order of their 
occurrence, and the account may be closed with an 
appropriate ending. 

For example, an incident is to be related by a cer- 



80 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

tain pupil standing in front of the class. All the other 
members listen attentively and prepare to make criti- 
cal comments, favorable or unfavorable. When the 
pupil has finished, he remains standing, while those 
who have comments to make rise and in turn address 
him. In this criticism, friendly candor is encouraged; 
if the pupil has done well, his classmates should direct 
attention to the points of excellence; if he has done 
poorly, they are to be equally frank — polite, too, of 
course — in directing attention to specific faults and 
suggesting ways by which the composition may be im- 
proved. Aside from questions of grammar, variety and 
structure of sentences, and sequences of thought, this 
method affords opportunity for comments on intona- 
tion of the voice, bearing of the pupil before the class, 
rapidity or slowness of speech, enunciation, and the 
many little mannerisms that mar oral delivery or make 
it effective. 

After pupils have had some practice in relating inci- 
dents that they have seen or experienced, their inven- 
tive faculties may be aroused by giving them sugges- 
tive situations which they may elaborate, as follows: — 

1. A boy — a dog — dusk — a stump that looks like a 
crouching man. 

2. A little girl — a pile of unwashed dishes — the tele- 
phone. 

3. A boy — a woman — a pile of wood — winter. 

As pupils become more mature and have practice 
in this kind of composition they will be able to produce 



ENGLISH 81 

original incidents similar to the following, selected 
from those given by eighth-grade pupils. 1 They illus- 
trate the sort of incidents that should be encouraged 
in oral exercises, and later for written composition: — 

A Dog's Trouble 

One bright morning two hay wagons were going down the 
road, followed by a large greyhound. He was running under- 
neath one of the wagons, looking at a box of chickens that 
had been nailed on to the wagon. He often poked his wet nose 
up against the slats and a large rooster pecked at it every 
time he did this. The dog wanted his breakfast very much 
and he was determined to have a chicken. The chicken was 
just as determined to live a little longer, and soon the dis- 
appointed dog went away with a bruised nose and no break- 
fast. 

Exercise on a Street-Car Strap 

A young man was one day seated in a street car when an 
elderly gentleman got on the car. The seats were all occupied, 
and so the young man arose and asked the old man to take 
his seat. 

"No, indeed," the old gentleman protested, "I would 
rather stand." 
* "But I can stand better than you," the young man said. 

The old gentleman thanked him, but held on to the strap. 
As the car stopped or started he would swing around on the 
strap and say with a smile, "This is my morning exercise." 

A Tragedy in the Animal World 

One frosty fall morning as I was going on an errand, I 
heard a cat piteously calling for assistance. I looked all 
around, but I could not locate the sound. After a short time 
I looked up and there on top of the highest pole in the street, 

1 From The Course of Study in English, Indianapolis, Indiana. 



82 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

sat a cat. Some dogs had been chasing it, and to escape, the 
cat had climbed to the top of the pole. 

After it had been there for about an hour, two big boys 
came along. One climbed up and put the cat on his back, 
where it held on by its claws until it reached the ground. 

As soon as it felt "mother earth" under it, it ran away and 
disappeared around the house. 



A Day Is a Day 

One day last week, while a neighbor girl and I were sitting 
on our porch, we noticed a little girl of about four years trudg- 
ing toward us under the burden of a large new doll. My 
friend, who knew the child well, inquired of her how she got 
possession of her plaything. 

"Oh," the child cried, and her face was illumined with a 
smile, "it's my birthday!" 

"Why did you not tell me of it before?" asked my friend. 

The child's face became clouded for a moment, but then 
with eager voice she said, "Well, it lasts all day." 

A Memorable Afternoon 

One day just before school closed my father bought me a 
donkey as I had been wanting one for several months. 

School had closed at noon that day so I thought I would 
ride my new donkey. I brought him out of the stable, led 
him up to the side of the fence, climbed the fence, and thus 
mounted my steed. 

We started off down the street and had gone but a few 
yards when up flew Pollie's heels and off I went into a mud- 
puddle. 

The next morning, at school, the teacher had on the board 
the following sentence, "The boy can ride the donkey." She 
asked me if I could make a better sentence out of it. I told 
her I could, so she said, "Well, get up and tell it to me." I 
arose and said, "The boy can ride the donkey if the donkey 
wants him to." 

I then told her of my experience, and she said I was right. 



ENGLISH 83 

The lives of human beings, real and imaginary, are 
always interesting to people, young or old. Doubtless, 
for this reason, stories of personified plants and ani- 
mals make a universal appeal, as is shown by the wide 
popularity of Alice in Wonderland, Br'er Rabbit Stories, 
and iEsop's Fables. Children not only enjoy hearing 
these stories, but they also enjoy telling them and 
others like them. They have an abundance of subjects 
in the home pets, in the house and garden plants, in 
their dolls, in the people of their imagination, in fairy 
stories, and in the stories of peoples of other lands. 

Descriptions 

Composition in the field of description gives oppor- 
tunity for training in exact observation and in truthful 
expression. In description, as in all composition, oral 
or written, the truth should never be sacrificed to effect. 
The first consideration in judging of a description is its 
truthfulness; the next consideration is its effectiveness 
or interest. 

* To illustrate this the following incident is given. A 
teacher once took her class to the school-room window 
for the purpose of gathering material for a description 
of the view. The composition subject was to be "The 
View from Our Schoolroom Window." After the view 
had been discussed, its center of interest had been de- 
termined, various interesting features near and remote 
had been discovered, and apt descriptive words had 
been suggested, the pupils went to their seats to plan 



84 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

the composition and to write. One of the class asked, 
"May I put in imaginary things if they will make my 
story more interesting?" The teacher replied, "Yes, 
make your story as interesting as you can. Put in any- 
thing that comes to your mind." 

This teacher was evidently confounding the imagi- 
native story with a description and was losing sight of 
one of the main purposes in all composition writing — - 
training in thinking clearly and directly to a conscious 
end. Writing descriptions of imaginary scenes is legiti- 
mate when that is the task in hand, but the teacher in 
this case had set the problem of describing an actual 
scene, and the pupils should have kept this steadily 
in mind. 

Persons, places, things, events, industrial activities 
and processes that are found in school, at home, or in 
the community, may be used as subjects for descrip- 
tive composition. It is a cardinal principle in com- 
position teaching, as in all other subjects, that the 
teacher should keep his eyes open to the things about 
him, and use common sense. And it is just this em- 
ployment of common sense applied to common things 
that distinguishes the good teacher from the poor 
one. 

Does it seem as if nothing ever happens in your com- 
munity? Think of. the things Walt Whitman saw on a 
country road. Remember what Myra Kelly found in 
her classroom of "Little Citizens." Consider what 
Mary E. Wilkins Freeman did with a prim little 



ENGLISH 85 

New England village. Read Edgar Lee Masters' /Spoon 
River Anthology and see what he made out of the town 
of Bernadotte, Illinois. Drab, dusty, sleepy, idle, 
dead, Bernadotte — once a roaring port-of-call on the 
great western highway — has lain on the bank of its 
lazy river for a generation, ever since the railroad 
passed four miles to the south and left it to uninter- 
rupted decay. Surely nothing happens along its single 
street! Yet Masters saw that town as it really was, 
and out of it made literature. If you think that in your 
own rural community nothing ever happens, read his 
book. Try to make the children see that most people 
live a novel at some time in their lives; that some may 
live an essay, or a poem, or an adventure in content- 
ment. Try to make them see the stories that happen 
in their own common lives. Watch for the stories that 
happen in your own. 

Just this quality of observation is rare. People do 
not see the world about them. For instance, in one 
school the supervisor of drawing asked the teachers 
whether they had done any clay modeling. 

"No," said the teachers in righteous chorus. "We 
have n't any clay." 

The supervisor made no remark. But when she re- 
turned in the afternoon, she exhibited three samples of 
excellent modeling clay. 

"This," she said, "I got on the road to the normal 
school, half a mile away. This I took from the excava- 
tion that is being made on the next lot. And this I 



86 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

picked up among the roots of a tree ten feet from your 
front door." 

No further comment was necessary. She had merely 
seen things about her and applied them to her work. 
How many things are there within range of any school- 
room window which neither teacher nor pupils have 
ever really seen? And who was it said that a mouse is 
miracle enough to stagger sextillions of infidels? 

Pupils will also enjoy the study of pictures, and these 
are well adapted for training in careful observation and 
the truthful telling of what is seen. The simple artistic 
picture is best for this use. Choose one in which the 
interest centers about persons or animals that are in- 
tent on doing something. Pictures crowded with de- 
tails are confusing. The pupil's task is to translate the 
thought from the picture to the language form of ex- 
pression, and he can do this most easily when the facts 
are few and obvious. 

Whether the teacher at a given recitation uses one 
picture for the entire class, or selects one for each 
pupil, is in itself unimportant. If there is available 
a large picture illustrating some scene or incident that 
has recently been discussed in the history or geog- 
raphy class, it can be used profitably for composition 
work. 

One of the gravest faults in descriptions composed by 
children is lack of unity and coherence, caused by their 
giving all details equal rank. In primary grades there 
may be less emphasis on form in the interest of free ex- 



ENGLISH 87 

pression, but in the higher grades attention should be 
given to this and to the organization of the composi- 
tion material. As a preliminary exercise, the class may 
be asked to give orally in one sentence the thought of a 
picture held before them. This may be repeated with 
other pictures until the pupils learn to separate the 
main features from the subordinate ones. A class 
exercise in which the whole picture is described may 
follow, special attention being paid to the relative im- 
portance of its parts. On another day, the class may 
dictate a description which the teacher writes upon the 
board. Later they will be able to work independently 
at their seats. 

There is no way to teach a child how to put into 
words that which may be called the "atmosphere" of 
a picture, since it is a matter of individual sensitiveness 
to artistic form and color. This sensitiveness comes 
from association with the beautiful rather than by 
direct teaching. 

Exposition 

Under the head of exposition come the composing 
of business letters; directions for playing games and 
for making articles of furniture, clothing, and so forth. 
Of these the most important is the business letter. 
The sharpest criticism of the public schools is from 
business men who receive letters from pupils and grad- 
uates. Moreover, this, together with the social letter, 
is about the only form of composition that most of 



88 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

the graduates of the elementary schools will ever use, 
unless they go on to the higher schools. 

A school letter, like any other composition, ought 
to have its reason for being written. The reason which 
constitutes a letter problem should be discussed to 
determine the contents and tone of the letter. If appli- 
cation is made for a position, the demands of such a 
position and the applicant's fitness for it ought to be 
considered. The arrangement of the parts of the letter 
is important. This may be worked over orally and 
on the blackboard before the class is given a similar 
letter problem to solve in written form. In the seventh, 
and particularly in the eighth grade, the business letter 
should receive special attention. The composing of 
business and of social letters, telegrams, and replies to 
advertisements is treated more at length under the 
heading, "Written Composition." 

Argumentation 

Exercises in argumentation may be very interesting 
and profitable if too much is not expected. While de- 
bating should be attempted in the upper grades only, 
pupils in all grades may prepare simple discussions, 
taking sides on questions in geography, history and 
civics. They may formulate reasons for believing a cer- 
tain statement to be true, or for making a certain 
choice; such as, "Shall I put this money [a particular 
sum] in the bank or spend it for a toy?" "Shall we 
raise flowers or vegetables in our school garden?" etc. 



ENGLISH 89 

Before a debate is attempted, pupils should learn 
how to state a question for debate; for example, "Re- 
solved, That pupils ought not to be allowed to exchange 
costly presents at Christmas." Then the simple rules 
governing debate should be explained. Here again, as 
in the less formal argumentations, questions should be 
chosen that are clearly within the comprehension of the 
debaters. Abstract questions, and those that are likely 
to cause unfavorable comment by sensible people, 
should be excluded. There are many questions also 
that children in the elementary grades may properly 
discuss without reaching a definite conclusion, because 
they are not in possession of all the facts. This gives a 
training in suspending judgment that is not without 
value. 

Material for compositions 

In the foregoing pages many hints have been made 
pointing to the vital material that lies close to the 
teacher's hand for work in composition. This material 
is very abundant. It is found in the pupil's own experi- 
ence and observation, in the books that he reads or has 
read to him, and in pictures. Of these much the most 
important for compositions are his personal experiences 
and observations at home, in school, in his games, and 
in his general community life, because, in talking and 
writing about these, he is obliged to do his own think- 
ing. Nothing here is second-hand. But no great ad- 
vance could be made if he could not add to his own 



90 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

experience that of others also as it is portrayed in books 
and pictures. If pupils are properly encouraged, they 
will propose interesting passages from their own read- 
ing, and contribute pictures for use in composition 
lessons. 

There is need, however, of discrimination in drawing 
upon this material, and much of the success in its use 
will depend upon the choice of subjects and upon the 
points of view from which the subjects are considered. 
A glance at the subjects chosen by Hans Andersen will 
show that he took great delight in personifying homely 
and commonplace objects. Thorwaldsen, the great 
sculptor, said to him once, " Come, now, write us a new 
and comical story. I wonder if you could make one up 
about the darning-needle?" Andersen's The Darning- 
Needle, which is really a story of human life, followed. 
Other examples, as John Burroughs's essay on The 
Apple, Henry van Dyke's A Handful of Clay, and 
John Ruskin's The Bird, show what beauty can be 
found in common things. 

It has been noted before that a subject is improved 

by limiting it. Possible limitations will be revealed in 

class discussions in which a general subject is treated 

from different points of view. To illustrate the variety 

of such subjects that may be made within a general 

one, the subject, "A Game of Ball," may be taken: — 

1. Subject — How the Game is Played. 
Outline — (a) How the field is laid out. 

(b) What is needed to play with. 

(c) Some rules of the game. 



ENGLISH 91 

2. Subject — Last Saturday's Game. 
Outline — (a) The teams. 

(6) The beginning of the game. 
(c) How the game ended. 

3. Subject — Watching a Game of Baseball. 
Outline — (a) Why I went to the game. 

(b) Some interesting incidents. 

(c) The crowd. 

(d) Going home after the game. 

4. Subject — How we Played Ball at School. 
Outline — (a) Talking it over. 

(b) Picking the players. 

(c) Planning the field. 

(d) Playing the game. 

5. Subject — Playing First Base. 
Outline — (a) How I got the position. 

(b) What the first baseman must do. 

6. Personification subjects. 

1. The Story of a Bat. 

2. The Story of a Ball. 

3. What the Catcher's Mask Saw. 

4. Autobiography of an Old Baseball Suit, etc. 

A few other subjects are given as examples of the 
kind that may appeal to children in grades five to 
eight : — 

Fifth-grade subjects 

1. How we celebrate "Arbor Day." 

2. Convince your teacher that you ought to have an extra 
holiday. 

3. Write a paragraph on some interesting place in South 
America. 

4. Some signs of spring. 

5. If you have seen men digging a cellar, a well, or a ditch, 
write about it. 

6. A rainy day in the barn. 



m THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

7. The story of a crocus in the school yard 

(a) Its long winter sleep. 

(b) The awakening. 

(c) Its life above ground. 

8. A favorite page in my drawing-book. 

9. A funny experience I have had. 

10. Our autumn walk. 

11. Our meat market at Thanksgiving. 

12. Santa Claus. 

13. What the chickens said to each other the first day the 
mother hen took them to the barnyard. 

14. How I helped father. 

15. My experience in ventilating my bedroom. 

Sixth-grade subjects 

1. Planting my garden. 

2. A boy comes hurrying home from school and dashes 
into the sitting-room where his mother is sewing. He 
throws his cap into a corner, his books upon the sofa, 
and begins to talk to his mother. Report the conversa- 
tion. 

3. Write about some interesting current event that has 
been reported in class. 

4. An evening in a pioneer home. 

5. Write a story from the following setting: Two dis- 
tressed little girls are looking down at a broken doll on 
the ground. 

6. Persuade a boy who is unfair in the school games to 
give others a chance. 

7. Write a letter giving one or two incidents that happened 
on a journey you have taken. 

8. An American hero. Why do you admire him? 

9. How to care for shade trees. 

10. Describe an interesting picture that you have at home. 

11. Tell a newly arrived immigrant child about school life 
in America. 

12. Our friends, the birds. 

13. Crossing the Alps with Hannibal. 



ENGLISH 93 

14. A morning shoveling snow. 

15. What advantage has the boy who earns and saves 
money over the boy who has not learned to earn or 
save? 

Seventh-grade subjects 

1. Planning a birthday party. 

2. If it comes within your personal experience write upon 
one of the following subjects: — 

(a) A narrow escape. 

(b) Almost a catastrophe. 

(c) All due to carelessness. 

3. Give direction for making something you have your- 
self made, as — 

(a) Popcorn balls. 

(b) A cup of coffee. 

(c) An apron. 

(d) A sling-shot. 

4. The qualities of a good basket-ball player. 

5. How we cleaned up the school yard. 

6. Our corn club. 

7. Keeping accounts — its ups and downs. 

8. The parents were abed and asleep. The clock on the 
wall ticked loudly and lazily, as if it had time to spare. 
Outside the rattling windows there was a restless, 
whispering wind. The moon played hide and seek 
through the clouds. The boy, wide-awake and quiet in 
his bed, was thinking of . . . 

Finish the story. ' 

9. Our behavior in public places. 

10. You are a soldier with Miles Standish. Describe the 
starting of an expedition into the forest. 

11. A conversation between the American and British flags 
— in 1776; in 1812; in 1915. 

12. A Knight of the Round Table. 

Eighth-grade subjects 

1. A suitable graduating dress for a grammar-school girl. 

2. A boy who did things. 



94 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

3. What your town or city may expect of a good citizen. 

4. Saturday evening on Main Street. 

5. Playing in a garret. 

6. A letter from David Copperfield to his mother. 

7. The flagman at the railroad crossing. 

8. The trick that failed. 

9. A little girl lost while Christmas shopping. 

10. How to entertain a number of small children on a 
rainy day. 

11. An incident connected with some place with which you 
are familiar; as, for instance, a deserted farmhouse, a 
village store, a schoolhouse, a railroad station, a street- 
crossing, a department store. 

12. Two things I have learned about soils, and how I 
learned them. 

13. Tell a story using one of the following quotations for a 
subject: — 

A stitch in time saves nine. 

A merry heart doeth good like medicine. 

He laughs best who laughs last. 

14. The trials of a letter-carrier. 

15. Write a letter to a friend telling about a school con- 
test in which you have taken part. 

Outlines 

It was evident in the suggested treatment of the 
subject, "A Game of Ball," on a previous page that 
the outlines were constructed to guide the writer of a 
composition in the discussion of his subject. An out- 
line is a plan of thinking. Or it may be considered as 
a skeleton or framework on which the composition is 
constructed. It is a necessary factor in composing, for 
the discussion should start at a definite point and arrive 
at a definite, predetermined goal. This is true even if 
the composition consists of but a single paragraph. 



ENGLISH 95 

To prepare an outline appropriate to a given sub- 
ject and purpose and to do it easily requires practice. 
This may be given in class exercises which are de- 
voted to working out composition plans cooperatively, 
the teacher writing on the blackboard topics and sub- 
topics that the pupils suggest. The content of the para- 
graphs to be built upon each topic is considered and 
the number and arrangement of topics best suited to 
the purpose of the composition are determined. Addi- 
tional practice may be given by the preparation of 
outlines for subjects that have been discussed in class, 
where the limitations and purposes of the composi- 
tions have been established. And again the proper 
study of the reading lessons is excellent practice in 
outline work. In literature the outline is found in its 
proper place, holding up and binding together the 
composition structure. Through these various kinds 
of practice pupils ought to become so accustomed to 
the guidance of outlines that in the eighth grade they 
use them instinctively and habitually in all their 
composing. 

Oral criticisms 

Through all the various exercises that go to make 
up this course in systematic language training, the 
spirit of helpful criticism ought to prevail. But at all 
times the teacher's purpose should be to stimulate 
pupils to intelligent self-criticism. Increasingly, re- 
sponsibility for criticism, whether it be of their own 
or of another's work, will be assumed by them. 



96 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

It should not be forgotten that judgment and indi- 
vidual taste have a large place in literary criticism. 
Composing is not an exact science, like mathematics; 
therefore teachers should be tolerant of the judgments 
of pupils not in agreement with their own, and they 
should encourage this spirit of tolerance in the pupils. 
For the composition is not an end in itself, and its 
freedom from mistakes is not its best characteristic. 
In fact, perfection should not be expected, nor de- 
sired. 

Criticism, both of teacher and pupils, will have 
accomplished its legitimate purpose, if it has estab- 
lished elastic standards of judgment; if it has habit- 
uated the pupils to the attitude of critical but sym- 
pathetic appreciation; and if the compositions, oral 
and written, show signs increasingly of its helpful in- 
fluence. 

But here, again, this result will not come of itself. 
It is not enough to have the right critical spirit. Pu- 
pils must be taught how to criticize. This can be done 
best through the oral exercises. For class discussion 
the "incident" is particularly useful, because it is 
short and pointed, and its structure is simple and 
evident. Critical interest may be focused on one kind 
of mistake at a time or on one quality — sequence 
of thought, structure of sentences or of paragraphs; 
choice of words one day, use of comma another day, 
etc. There is economy of labor in thus limiting the 
scope of criticism, and the results are more definite. 



ENGLISH 97 

The position of the pupil who is speaking is also 
a matter to be noted and criticized both by pupils and 
teachers. The posture should be correct. One who 
sits in the front of the room should certainly face the 
class. A pupil in the rear may stand by his desk, and 
the others may be allowed to turn in their seats so 
that they can see him, or he may pass to the side or 
front of the class. The class should always be re- 
garded as an audience by the speaker. The two should 
be in such position and attitude, one to the other, that 
addressing and listening are made easy. 

As the listeners in such an exercise cannot carry in 
memory the points that they may like to raise for 
discussion, they should be taught how to take notes. 

Written Composition 

The large place here given to oral composition is 
no larger than its importance warrants. It is the 
foundation of good written composition. In the first 
grade at least three-fourths of the language work 
should be oral. This proportion may be reduced grad- 
ually, but, throughout the elementary grades, at least 
half of the language time will be devoted profitably 
to oral composing and oral criticism. After a class has 
become alive to the possibilities in a given subject 
through oral discussion; after each pupil has selected 
his point of view and stated his subject; after each has 
planned the scope and sequence of his thought — that 
is, the outline — it is time to write and not before. 



98 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

However, not all that has been said in the oral ex- 
ercise should be put into writing. One or two writ- 
ten sentences or a paragraph may often serve the 
purpose. The cause of failure to maintain interest 
in this subject may be traced to (a) too much written 
work, (6) lengthy essays, (c) excessive criticism, (d) 
too much rewriting, or (e) the attempt to secure re- 
sults beyond the capacity of the pupils. It cannot 
be stated with too much emphasis that the frequent 
writing of good sentences and of single paragraphs is 
of much more importance than the writing of formal 
essays. In fact, the essay is the least practical form 
of composition, — entirely useless for children; and 
whatever value there may be in it for grown people 
can be developed best in the high school. 

Teachers should be on their guard against requiring 
more in quality than pupils can give. The standard 
of perfection may make them careless and indifferent, 
for it cannot be realized. But for the teacher to set 
the standard of improvement, and to emphasize one 
or two composition qualities at a time in the written 
exercise as in the oral, will make it possible for every 
pupil to succeed, and success is a most powerful in- 
centive to effort. 

Criticisms of written composition 

A critic should first of all establish for himself the 
writer's point of view. He is then in a position to ap- 
preciate what has been written. So, too, that teacher 



ENGLISH 99 

is the most stimulating critic whose first concern it is 
to discover the intent of a composition, its good quali- 
ties, and to note and approve signs of effort and of 
growth in skill. Disapproval of carelessness, of mis- 
takes in spelling, of faults in punctuation and in 
mechanical arrangement may be kept subordinate to 
approval of what is commendable without danger of 
encouraging indifference to these important matters. 

In this work of correction perhaps the most valu- 
able aid is given in the conference period. By sitting 
down at the side of a pupil and reading with him what 
he has written, the teacher can come into a close per- 
sonal relation. This conference is held most effec- 
tively with many pupils when they are writing, as 
the teacher passes about observing the compositions 
in their process of growth. That teacher is not the 
most helpful one who corrects in the evening hours 
most minutely the largest number of compositions. 
Neither does that pupil take the keenest interest in 
his work, nor does he make the most substantial prog- 
ress who copies the largest number of such well-marked 
papers. The responsibility for finding and correcting 
common errors should be thrown on the pupils. The 
results of discussion in class and of the teacher's sug- 
gestions should appear in the next new compositions. 

Pupils may exchange their written exercises and 
pass judgment upon them, indicating, as the teacher 
is accustomed to do, the pleasing features, suggest- 
ing improvements in organization and wording, and 



100 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

pointing out errors. They may even give the papers 
a rating, using a schedule of values that has been agreed 
to. If these judgments of pupils do not affect the rat- 
ing given by teachers, but are used solely as exercises 
in training the critical judgment, they can do no injus- 
tice to any pupil. 

In each recitation several compositions may be 
read aloud by the pupils for oral criticism. It is one 
of the best ways to interest a class, particularly the 
indifferent pupils, because it offers them an immedi- 
ate reward. It will also improve the oral reading, for 
the class cannot criticize when it cannot hear. If a 
pupil reads his composition haltingly, and is not hold- 
ing the interest of his hearers, he should not be al- 
lowed to continue. It is better for him to sit down and 
study it until he can read it in a way to reveal the 
good qualities that he has put into it. 

In teaching pupils how to criticize, it will be well for 
them, as well as for the teacher, to have in mind a 
plan of procedure. Something like the following may 
be found useful in all grades : — 

1. Read the composition through. 

2. Is it interesting? Tell one thing that made it so. 

3. Did its author write as if he were interested in his sub- 
ject? 

4. Did the writer keep to his subject? Did he put any- 
thing in it that was unnecessary? 

5. Are the sentences well arranged? Point out misplaced 
sentences. 

6. Were any of the expressions new to you? 

7. Mention any apt word that you noticed. 



ENGLISH 101 

8. Indicate a particularly good sentence, or sentences. 

9. Indicate a sentence or sentences that could be improved. 

10. Help the pupil to restate it. 

11. Correct grammatical errors. 

12. Correct mechanical errors. 



Letter-writing 

There is no form of composition in which the atti- 
tude of self-criticism is so important as letter-writing, 
for it is the one form of composition which every one 
must use and upon which at times one's success in 
life may depend. 

It may be said at the outset that the test of a good 
letter is its favorable effect on the person who receives 
it. One of the first considerations, therefore, in a com- 
position that takes the letter form, should be the tastes 
and interests of the person to whom the letter is ad- 
dressed. A composition, then, is not a letter, properly 
speaking, simply because it is cast in the letter form. 
Much interest and point will be given to class criticism 
of letters, if each pupil, before reading his letter, de- 
scribes the person to whom it is directed. 

School letters ought also to involve real situations. 
It will require some ingenuity to create them, but re- 
sults will repay the effort. 

Some ways employed by successful teachers to make 
letter-writing real may be suggestive. For instance, 
an actual exchange of friendly letters may be made 
among members of the class; a schoolroom post-office 
may be devised with postmaster and letter carriers; 



102 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

birthday letters may be exchanged; correspondence 
may be carried on with the pupils of other rooms or 
schools; the teacher may write a letter to the class, 
or he may read an interesting one that he has received, 
to which pupils may make reply. The letters of fa- 
mous people to children may be read to the class, and 
they may imagine that they are the children receiving 
the letters and may write replies. Of course the suc- 
cess of this plan depends upon the pupils' knowledge of 
and interest in the writers. There are excellent col- 
lections of such letters, conspicuously those of Phillips 
Brooks, of Lewis Carroll, of Victor Hugo, and of Hans 
Andersen. Letters received from friends or relatives 
by members of the class may be read, accompanied by 
a description of the senders. The use of geography, 
history and civics as material for letter-writing is also 
very common. Pupils may imagine themselves chil- 
dren of the times and places about which they are 
studying, or they may impersonate the prominent 
characters of various times and places, describing to 
friends the historic and geographic situations in which 
they find themselves. School activities, school inci- 
dents, public day exercises, birthday celebrations of 
distinguished persons furnish interesting occasions 
for letter-writing as well as for other forms of com- 
position. In some schools all excuses for absence and 
tardiness, and all requests for early dismissal are 
written by the pupils under the direction of parents 
and signed by them. 



ENGLISH 103 

Letters and other forms of composition may be 
illustrated. Many adults of a sprightly disposition 
like to supplement their word pictures with drawings 
of the thumb-nail or crude outline variety. That 
authors sometimes revert to this kind of illustrations 
is evident in some of the writings of Thackeray and 
Dickens, and in a recently published book entitled 
Daddy Longlegs. Such drawings are to be judged 
not by their artistic merit but by their story-telling 
quality. 

The stationery and the ink used in correspondence 
have much to do with the impression of a letter upon 
the recipient. Many people are not careful in these 
particulars, at times to their great disadvantage. 
Consideration should be given to these matters in the 
upper grammar grades. 

This training in writing friendly and social letters 
may begin in the third year of school. It should be em- 
phasized throughout the course. The writing of busi- 
ness letters, of telegrams, and of answers to advertise- 
ments should be taken up seriously in the seventh and 
eighth grades. While children of the age of fourteen 
years will not be able, even with careful training, to 
write a mature business letter, they may become pro- 
ficient in the elements of business English composi- 
tion, so that they may meet the demands of possible 
employers, or be ready in their field to take up suc- 
cessfully the advanced work of the high school. 

To this end, pupils may write orders for goods of 



104 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

various descriptions, they may subscribe for papers 
or magazines, they may write letters acknowledging 
the receipt of goods, some expressing approval of qual- 
ity, others criticizing the quality. They may apply 
for positions and recommend their friends for posi- 
tions. But writing of this sort also is not of great value 
unless it is made to deal with real situations; for it 
calls for little thinking to write orders for goods with 
which the writer is unacquainted, to criticize the qual- 
ity of goods about which he is entirely ignorant, and 
to apply for all sorts of positions of whose requirements 
he has no knowledge. 

However, if pupils make personal studies of local 
occupations and gather exact information regarding 
them, they will get vocational insight that may be of 
future value and they will be able to compose intelli- 
gently their school applications for positions. For 
example, the girls may consider the requirements for 
seamstresses, cooks, waitresses, nurses, clerks, school 
teachers; while the boys consider the qualities that 
determine the success of newsboys, grocer-boys, cash- 
iers, bookkeepers, or farmhands. They may interview 
people engaged in various occupations and watch them 
at work. They may call on the town clerk or the school 
business director to learn the particular problems of 
each that give occasion for correspondence. 

Appropriate advertisements may be cut from news- 
papers and answered not carelessly and haphazard 
but with the thought of the fitness of the boy or girl 



ENGLISH 105 

for a particular job. After a study of a specific indus- 
try has been made and an advertisement for a posi- 
tion in it has been written in answer to one found in a 
newspaper or to one composed by the class, a pupil 
may write a letter to another member of the class offer- 
ing him or her a particular position. The receiver of 
the offer may accept or decline in a properly worded 
reply, as he deems himself fitted or unfitted for the 
duties of the position. 

The writing of telegrams likewise amounts to little 
if it consists in writing just a few ten-word messages. 
But if definite situations are stated which must be 
analyzed and condensed into a given number of words 
without essential omission, then tasks will be set that 
call for thinking and language skill. The following 
paragraphs, setting forth a situation and its conden- 
sation into a telegram, will illustrate this: — 

Situation — A traveling salesman can sell one hundred 
dozen hats, catalogue number, No. 10, at authorized price of 
twenty dollars per dozen, if he can give a ten per cent dis- 
count. In a ten-word telegram he asks his firm for instruc- 
tions. 

Telegram — Offered eighteen dollars for hundred dozen 
number ten hats. Instruct. 

(Signed) 

While pupils are writing telegrams, they may make 
interesting studies of the telegraph business. Blank 
forms on which telegrams are written may be brought 
to the class. " Night-letters " and " day-letters " and 
the rates for sending each to a certain place may be 



106 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

learned. The cost of these may be compared with 
that of a telephone call or a cable message. 

Enlarging and enriching the vocabulary 

In all these various exercises in oral and written 
composition and in the more informal use of language 
in common speech, there will be an ever growing de- 
mand for new words. An impoverished vocabulary 
is a cause as well as a result of emaciated thought. 
Therefore it becomes one of the vital, although often 
neglected, functions of English training to enrich and 
refine the vocabulary. Professor Palmer writes as fol- 
lows on this point: 1 — 

Our ordinary range is absurdly narrow. It is important, 
therefore, for anybody who would cultivate himself in Eng- 
lish to make strenuous and systematic efforts to enlarge his 
vocabulary. Our dictionaries contain more than a hundred 
thousand words. The average speaker employs about three 
thousand. Is this because ordinary people have only three or 
four thousand things to say? Not at all. It is simply due to 
dullness. Listen to the average schoolboy. He has a dozen 
or two nouns, half a dozen verbs, three or four adjectives, 
and enough conjunctions and prepositions to stick the con- 
glomerate together. 

Let any one who wants to see himself grow resolve to adopt 
two new words each week. It will not be long before the end- 
less and enchanting variety of the world will begin to reflect 
itself in his speech, and in his mind as well. I know that 
when we use a word for the first time we are startled, as if a 
firecracker went off in our neighborhood. We look about 
hastily to see if any one has noticed. But finding that no one 
has, we may be emboldened. A word used three times slips 
off the tongue with entire naturalness. Then it is ours, and 

1 G. H. Palmer, Self -Cultivation in English. 



ENGLISH 107 

with it some phase of life which had been lacking hitherto. 
For each word presents its own point of view, discloses a 
special aspect of things, reports some little importance not 
otherwise conveyed, and so contributes its small emancipa- 
tion to our tied-up minds and tongues. 

The teacher's use of words doubtless affects the 
pupil's vocabulary favorably or unfavorably. New 
words are added also by each subject of study, as 
drawing, geography, arithmetic, nature-study, and so 
forth. But through the practice of composing a teacher 
is given a unique opportunity to encourage the habit- 
ual use of new words. 

New words that have been learned in memorized selec- 
tions of literature should find their way into the compo- 
sitions, and the influence of these selections should show 
itself occasionally by an unusual use of a common word. 

C capitalization and punctuation 

There are two phases of written composition that 
from the practical standpoint are no less important 
than those that have been discussed. They are the use 
of capitals and of marks of punctuation. These mat- 
ters, apparently mechanical in their nature, in reality 
depend for their intelligent use upon the thought 
that is being expressed. They are mechanical tools 
with which a writer may, if he knows how, reveal 
his thought more distinctly on the printed page. The 
teacher should realize, however, that they are tools 
of comparatively recent invention, and that they 
are not essential to clear writing, for in former times 



108 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

writers were obliged to get on without them. Recent 
writers are using them sparingly. 

A few examples will illustrate this tendency. It is not 
uncommon in titles of books, in headings of chapters, 
and in topical analyses for the first word and the proper 
nouns and adjectives only to begin with a capital let- 
ter. Certain proper adjectives are sometimes seen — 
particularly in newspapers — beginning with a small 
letter, as : democratic party, impressionist school, renais- 
sance literature, etc. The form Mississippi river has 
become allowable instead of Mississippi River, but 
the latter form is still preferable. The semicolon and 
colon are seldom found or needed in ordinary compo- 
sition. Their proper use requires a maturity of judg- 
ment that elementary-school children do not possess. 
Sentences written by such pupils that really call for 
these marks should be remodeled and simplified. The 
comma is now frequently omitted in compound and 
complex sentences, provided the conjunction or relative 
word binds the parts of the sentence together closely. 

It thus comes to pass that, to acquire even elemen- 
tary skill in the use of capitals and of marks of punc- 
tuation, training in judgment must accompany the 
learning of rules. The rules that are fundamental to 
acceptable practice are not numerous, and these rules 
should be learned so thoroughly that the desired one 
will come automatically to mind when the occasion 
for its use is presented. 

Some special exercises, that lay particular stress 



ENGLISH 109 

on the use of capitals and marks of punctuation, should 
be devised by the teacher. A paragraph without 
capitals or marks of punctuation may be written on 
the board occasionally. The pupils' task will be to 
supply these. There will be also some oral exercises 
in which pupils think in sentences, that is, they will 
pause at the end of each thought and become con- 
scious of its ending and mentally visualize the proper 
mark — period, interrogation or exclamation mark. 
If this training is begun early, pupils will acquire the 
sentence sense that all must have who write easily and 
clearly. 

Dictation is another exercise that may be used for 
drill upon the mechanical elements of composition. 
It should be a teaching, not merely a writing and a 
testing, exercise. If, by study with the teacher, pupils 
do not get the meaning of the selection and under- 
stand why the capitals and punctuation marks are 
well used, they will of necessity place them in a purely 
mechanical way, as they have memorized them. 

Thus it will be well to choose for dictation a selec- 
tion that is easily understood by the class, and to 
choose it with a definite purpose: at one time for use 
of capitals; at another for quotation marks; at other 
times for spelling, for a particular use of the comma, 
for letter headings, etc. These exercises should be 
short and pointed. They may be corrected by the 
pupils in class, either by exchanging papers, or by 
comparison with a model form set by the teacher. . 



110 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

The use of the blackboard in teaching composition 

In dictation as in all other composition exercises, 
oral and written, the blackboard may be made the 
teacher's most helpful ally. Here the pleasing expres- 
sion may be compared with the faulty one. Teacher 
and pupils together may work out a language prob- 
lem in choice of words, in sentence construction or in 
paragraphing. Compositions in part or entire, if they 
are short, may be copied on the board, either as ex- 
amples of excellence to be used as standards or for 
the correction of typical mistakes. In the latter in- 
stance they should be covered with a curtain or map 
until the time of recitation, so that pupils may not 
receive incorrect impressions. 

The class exercise may be followed by the criticism 
of compositions in the hands of the pupils, either their 
own or their neighbor's. In an exchange of composi- 
tions, it may be well for the poorest papers to pass 
sometimes into the hands of the best writers and vice 
versa. While the corrections are being made, the 
teacher should not sit at her desk, but she should find 
some way of making this a real teaching exercise, re- 
cording on the board for present or future considera- 
tion the points raised by the pupils. 

Again there are many occasions when pupils may 
be sent to the board to write sentences and paragraphs 
that illustrate the point under discussion, or to make 
more evident a troublesome error and its correction. 



ENGLISH 111 

At times also it may be well to have a pupil write his 
composition on the blackboard at the side of the room 
while the others write at their seats. This may be 
used later for class criticism. 

The teacher, who has learned how to make the 
chalk do its share of the talking, and has taught the 
pupils to be ready in its use, is often the most effec- 
tive instructor. 

COLLATERAL READING 

1. On oral and written composition : — 

Elementary Course in English. James F. Hosic. 
Chapter on "Composition." 

2. In the grammar grades : — 

The Teaching of English. Percival Chubb. 
Chapter XI. 
S. Survey of past and present tendencies : — 

The Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study 
of Education. 

Chapter VII, pages 90-99. 

4. On dramatization : — 

The Dramatic Method of Teaching. Harriet Finlay-* Johnson. 

Chapter IX. 

5. On development of effectiveness in composition: — ; 

Linguistic Development and Education. M. V. O'Shea. 
Chapter XII. 

6. On criticism: — 

Teaching the Language- Arts. B. A. Hinsdale. 

Chapter XVIII. 
Also the following books: — 

Self-Cultivation in English. G. H. Palmer. 

Very readable and suggestive. 
Letters from Colonial Children. Eva M. Tappan. v 

Imaginary letters planned to give an idea of life in some representa- 
tive American colonies as it might have seemed to children. Suitable 
for fifth and sixth grades. 
Letters to Children written by Famous People. 

A delightful collection that should be very useful to teachers. 



112 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

Grammar 

In a large city not many years ago a visitor to the 
schools noticed on the blackboard in an eighth-grade 
room a lesson assignment in grammar that recalled 
the assignments common in a district school in a re- 
mote rural section in Maine in the days of his boy- 
hood. There were long involved sentences, and a 
stanza of poetry. Difficult and doubtful construc- 
tions abounded. Definitions, diagrams, and parsing 
were called for with an insistence that revealed the 
controlling influence of the partisans of the "culture" 
school of education. 

Upon inquiry among principals and teachers in 
various parts of the city, the visitor could find no one 
who defended the kind of emphasis then being placed 
on grammar. Finally it was discovered that the Latin 
Department in the high school had become dissatisfied 
with the amount of grammar brought to their classes 
in the heads of those coming from the eighth grade, and 
that it had succeeded "through a hot campaign" in 
compelling the adoption of the present course, on the 
ground that "the Latin Department had no time to 
teach the grammar needed in the study of Latin." 
That the grammar insisted on was beyond the mental 
capacity of the pupils, did not interest the Latin De- 
partment. That it crowded out the study of practical 
English, interested it as little. In the judgment of 
most teachers even in these same high schools this 



ENGLISH 113 

course really belonged to the high-school plane of 
study, yet pupils in the elementary grades were sub- 
jected to this inexcusable and indefensible grind, 
because the promotion examinations for high school 
in this subject were made out by the Latin Depart- 
ment. 

Such a striking example of the unreasonableness 
of the reasons that have held grammar in its exalted 
place to the practical exclusion of the useful study of 
English would be unnecessary here, if it were not true 
that this unjustifiable emphasis is still not uncommon. 
It would appear that a few principles of education 
should now be established, and that among these are 
incontrovertibly two: one, that the mental tasks of 
children ought to be adapted to their mental strength, 
as their physical tasks are adapted to their physical 
strength; and the other, that the possible advantage 
for a few ought not to determine the course of train- 
ing for the many. 

The limited value of grammar 

There is ample testimony to the limited value of 
grammar as a special subject of study for elementary 
schools. Classical writers have confessed their disre- 
gard of its precepts. Recognized authorities in gram- 
mar have urged that only the simplest parts of it be 
taught in the elementary schools. Investigations by 
students of education seem to show that its influence 
on the speech and writing of school children has been 



114 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

slight, even where it has been made one of the main 
subjects of study. 

Moreover, grammar does not legislate; it merely 
records the principles which the majority of good 
writers and speakers in the past have employed. But 
the practice of good writers of English has not re- 
mained constant. The grammar of Chaucer, and the 
grammar of Shakespeare, and the grammar of Tenny- 
son, vary in many particulars. Changes in usage are 
now being made. There are evidences that the dis- 
tinction between shall and will is disappearing; that the 
use of the subjunctive mood forms is being increas- 
ingly restricted; that whom as an interrogative is 
dropping out of use. These changes will, of course, be 
accepted only when the majority of the best writers 
and speakers employ the new expressions. They will 
not be matters of concern to the elementary-school 
teachers, for the general principles that have long 
endured will doubtless persist. These are the prin- 
ciples that young pupils should learn. But the teach- 
er's knowledge that language is unstable should liber- 
alize his instruction and critical attitude. 

Pupils who have natural linguistic ability may re- 
ceive, even in elementary grades, some training in 
logical thinking by an intensive study of grammar, 
provided the teacher is master of the subject. But if 
the subject is, in the end, of little intrinsic value, it 
would appear to be the part of wisdom to secure this 
training through useful subjects. However, it is per- 



ENGLISH 115 

haps justifiable to carry the study farther with se- 
lected groups of pupils than with all. 

It appears to be generally agreed that the majority 
of pupils should be taught only those parts of grammar 
that they need to improve their daily use of language, 
and that these parts should be distributed in the grades 
according to the pupils' ability to comprehend and to 
apply them. 

Skill in the use of essentials 

But within the limitations here suggested, pupils 
ought to become proficient. That is, they should be 
able to apply their knowledge instantly. To this end 
occasional exercises may be given in which pupils are 
to find verb, subject, noun, adjective, etc., the time 
to be limited, as in arithmetic. If much time is re- 
quired to think out the simple grammatical relations 
and classifications, they are not yet known. 

This knowledge of principles and facility in their 
application should be insisted upon on grounds of 
economy. When a pupil learns, for example, that a 
compound subject regularly takes a plural verb, he 
has acquired a principle that will guide him in many 
cases. His practice may often err, but the rule will 
be a wholesome check to faulty diction. And again 
the rule, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent 
in person, gender and number," will guard one against 
the common error exemplified in "Each pupil will 
leave their paper on their desk." 



116 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

By thus restricting the study of grammar in the ele- 
mentary grades to that which bears directly upon the 
intelligent use of language, many difficulties generally 
encountered in the subject will disappear. For exam- 
ple, all but a small part of the problem of grammatical 
nomenclature 1 will be passed along to the high school. 
The elementary teacher's attention can be given to a 
better selection of material for grammatical study, to 
more closely relating grammar and the other phases 
of language, and to promoting the mastery just re- 
ferred to. 

Material for grammatical study should be simple 

The material used for grammatical study should 
be chosen with the same care that the teacher of 
physics and chemistry uses in planning his laboratory 
experiments. The material should be simple, involv- 
ing no confusing constructions and drawn for the 
most part from the pupil's own speech and writing. 
But common speech is full of grammatical subtleties 
that confuse the immature mind. For example, the 
sentence, My mother wants me to go home directly school 
is out, is a common enough sentence, but it would be 
folly to assign it to a class to analyze. 

As early as the fifth grade pupils may discuss the 
grammatical nature of the sentence. In the simplest 
declarative form they may learn to discover first the 

1 Report of the Joint Committee of the New England Association 
on Grammatical Nomenclature. Chicago University Press. 



ENGLISH 117 

stating word. After they are fairly proficient in this, 
they may be taught to place who or what before the 
verb, making a question that the subject of the verb 
will answer. Inverted sentences, such as Sweetly sang 
the robin, should be introduced early so that the pupil 
will not be misled into the conviction that the sub- 
ject always comes before the verb. 

By the end of the sixth year pupils should be able to 
recognize in simple sentences nouns, pronouns, verbs, 
adjectives, adverbs, prepositions and prepositional 
phrases. The following sentences were adapted from 
a sixth-grade pupil's composition. They are suffi- 
ciently difficult for this grade. As written by the pupil 
they were not suitable for grammatical study, al- 
though they were unobjectionable in the composition. 

1. We planted in our schoolroom a few beans. 

2. These beans were planted in a small box. 

3. What happened to the hard beans? 

4. The little green germ had forced its way up. 

Eighth-year pupils should be able to discuss the 
grammatical relations in such sentences as the follow- 
ing:— 

1. Yesterday I was very much surprised when I awoke. 

2. A large spider's web was stretched across one corner of 
my room. 

3. I first thought that I would tear the web down. 

4. I said to myself, "I will watch him." 

5. The fly kicked and struggled hard, but he was caught 
fast. 

If suitable sentences cannot be found in the spoken 

English of pupils or in their written work, they may 



118 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

be constructed as a class exercise. One pupil may- 
write at the board, the others suggesting the form of 
the sentence or sentences. All important facts con- 
cerning the use of words and the structure of sen- 
tences may be learned in this way, not from the book, 
but from sentences on the blackboard. 

Methods of instruction 

In general the approach to a new grammatical term 
should be inductive. If, for instance, the predicate 
adjective is to be taught in the seventh grade, a few 
sentences may be put on the board that illustrate fa- 
miliar uses of the adjective, leading up to the predicate 
use, like the following: — 

1. The large factory was burning. 

2. A fire engine was coming down the street. 

3. Boys, big and little, appeared from all directions. 

4. The firemen were brave. 

5. They were quick and strong. 

6. The water was abundant. 

7. The fire subsided quickly. 

8. The fire did little damage. 

9. Two men were owners of the factory. 
10. The owners were unhappy over the fire. 

It will be noted that the first three sentences illus- 
trate the uses of adjectives with which pupils are al- 
ready familiar. The fourth introduces the predicate 
use, which should be taught. The fifth and sixth are 
additional illustrations of the predicate use. The 
seventh compels comparison of predicate adjective 
and adverb. The eighth and ninth compel compari- 



ENGLISH 119 

son with object and predicate noun. The tenth returns 
to the predicate adjective. 

Such a lesson should make clear the peculiar qual- 
ity of the predicate adjective and the difference be- 
tween it and constructions with which it may be con- 
fused. After this there is need for an abundance of 
practice in distinguishing this construction in very 
simple relations. The predicate adjective with seem, 
appear, look, smell, taste is difficult for children to sense; 
in fact, many adults never clearly perceive the copula- 
tive significance of these verbs. Therefore it should 
be taught grammatically only in the higher grades, 
although at all times the predicate adjective use with 
these verbs should be insisted upon until it becomes 
instinctive. 

Through these inductive lessons pupils will come 
to see that the classification of words is determined 
by their use in the sentence, and that this use is dis- 
covered through an understanding of the meaning 
that the sentence expresses. This leads of necessity 
to the conclusion that the first question for the pupil 
to ask is, "What does the sentence mean?" The sec- 
ond question is, "What relation do the words hold 
one to the other in view of this meaning?" Questions 
of word forms are then properly raised. Analysis of 
sentences therefore should be the principal grammat- 
ical exercise. 

Diagramming is an economical means of indicating 
the grammatical relations of words, but it should not 



120 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

take the place of verbal analyses. In so far as it does 
this, the center of interest is moved from the thought 
in the sentence and the relation of the words to this 
thought, to the diagramming system and its applica- 
tion to a given sentence. 

Formal parsing exercises in which all the possible 
grammatical facts of each word in a sentence are 
given according to schedules are drill exercises in what 
may be called the anatomy and physiology of language. 
They deal with the dry bones of grammar, rather than 
with its practical uses. Where the subject is taught as 
a means of improving verbal expression, little time 
will be spent in parsing. The significant grammatical 
facts are given in a proper analysis of the sentence. 

In the seventh and eighth grades the pupils' knowl- 
edge should be systematized, so that it may be re- 
tained more easily and be more accessible. Moreover, 
this systematizing process involves the right kind of 
mental discipline. 

Time to be given to grammar 

For an elementary course of training in language, 
including composition and grammar, three periods 
per week should be ample time in which to accomplish 
the simple practical results that are here indicated, 
provided the use of good English is called for through- 
out the school day. Of this time none should be given 
to grammar in the first four grades. In the fifth grade 
an occasional lesson may be given. In the sixth and 



ENGLISH 121 

seventh grades it deserves not more than ten per cent 
of the time allotted to language, the equivalent of one 
lesson in ten. In the eighth grade one language lesson 
in five may be assigned with profit to grammar. 

Summary 

The subordinate place that grammar should hold 
in the elementary schools is indicated by the follow- 
ing quotations. One is the judgment of a successful 
business man, a university graduate; the other is the 
judgment of a director of English teaching in a large 
high school. They are in substantial agreement in 
their call to the schools to confine the study of lan- 
guage to perfecting pupils in the everyday use of it, 
avoiding its abstruse, difficult and merely ornamental 
phases. Says the business man: — 

Primarily am I impressed with the importance of ability 
to talk well — the importance of training in the everyday 
use of language. This and letter-writing are really all ninety- 
five per cent of our pupils need to know of the expression side 
of our language to be successful in their everyday business 
,and social relations. The rest of it, like any other subject 
devoted to appreciation, is a fine art. And a precious amount 
of time we squander on the over-niceties of English as com- 
pared with the fundamentals. 

Says the high-school teacher, who has observed 
many English classes, and has seen many seniors go 
out into the world: — 

What should a pupil know in English when he enters the 
high school? My plea is for the fundamentals, the correct 
habits in the fundamentals. ... I know I answer for a very 



122 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

large number when I say that if the pupils when they enter 
the high school can all read intelligently, can write and 
punctuate correctly constructed sentences — no sentences 
without verbs, no sentences run together, no sentences with 
floating dependent elements — and can spell a list of about 
two hundred common words which many of our first year 
high school pupils are now misspelling; if they can do these 
things from habit — not occasionally, but from habit — we 
shall welcome them with open arms. 1 

COLLATERAL READING 

1. On the value and use of grammar: — 

(a) Youth; Its Education, Regimen and Hygiene. G. Stanley 
Hall. 

Chapter X, page 240. 
(6) Teaching the Language Arts. B. A. Hinsdale. 

Chapter XVII, pages 150-51; 156-64. 
(c) The Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for 
the Study of Education. 

Chapter VII, pages 100-05. 

2. On grammar in the elementary grades: — 

The Teaching of English. Percival Chubb. 
Chapter XII. 

Spelling 
Failure to spell correctly is commonly regarded as 
a sign of illiteracy. The public school has always been 
sensitive to this prevalent attitude and has laid much 
stress on the spelling lesson and the spelling book. 
Until comparatively recent times, however, not much 
thought has been given to the selection of words to be 
studied for spelling, or to the method of teaching and 
studying these words. It has been assumed that if 
teachers were conscientious in assigning spelling-book 
words to their classes, and if pupils were conscientious 

1 English Journal, March, 1914. 



ENGLISH 123 

in spending time on the lesson thus assigned, good 
spelling would result. Moreover, from very early- 
times the unfortunate ambition to teach as many 
words as possible possessed the minds of many teach- 
ers. 

But this ambition and this plan of procedure have 
not produced the desired number of good spellers. A 
few prodigies were in evidence in the spelling con- 
tests of a past generation, who could not be "spelled 
down," and these prodigies occupied the field of vision 
of most people, so that they did not see that many 
children were not learning to spell the words in com- 
mon use. 

It was to be expected that, when the practical ideal 
began to dominate the school, the teaching of spelling, 
one of the most practical subjects, would be decidedly 
modified. The following changes may be noted: (a) 
Fewer words are now studied in each lesson and in 
each grade. (6) Only the common words are studied. 

(c) Pupils are taught how to study a spelling lesson. 

(d) A lesson assignment is in part a teaching exercise. 

Selection of words for spelling 

It is now generally agreed that the study of spelling 
in the elementary schools should be confined to a care- 
fully selected list of words that are used in writing. 
One does not need to consider the spelling of words 
used in conversation, and when one reads, the printed 
or written page supplies the spelling. 



124 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

Some investigations have been made to determine 
what these common words are. That they are fewer 
in number than has been generally supposed is certain. 
For example, in two thousand letters received from 
professional and business men and women, only two 
thousand and one different words were used. 1 A sum- 
mary of the results of the various investigations, in 
which the vocabularies of children and of adults have 
been studied, seems to warrant the conclusion that a 
list of five thousand words properly selected would 
include all those needed by educated people in written 
intercourse. This is about half the number found in 
the spelling books of the past. 

The first source from which to draw words for study 
in school is the pupil's own vocabulary. The words 
that he actually uses should of course be spelled cor- 
rectly. To this body of words there should be added 
new ones selected from those in use in ordinary life. 
The words believe, receive, picture, knives, cousin, lead- 
'pencil, libraries, villain, village, absence, nuisance, 
portion, calendar, diphtheria, hydrant, column, color, 
cities, planning, cellar, ought, aunt, echo, neighbor, are 
common words. Such words as celestial, abhorrence, 
syllogism, decalogue, convalescence, apportion and hy- 
pocrisy, are not common words. The spelling of unim- 
portant geographical names, many names in fiction, 
in history and in mythology, should be omitted. When 

1 Leonard P. Ayres, The Spelling Vocabularies of Personal and 
Business Letters. Russell Sage Foundation. 



ENGLISH 125 

it is necessary to use these in written work they may 
be put upon the board or looked up in the dictionary. 

The second source from which spelling words may 
be drawn is the reader and the spelling book. Makers 
of spelling books have of late years been more dis- 
criminating in the selection of words, but it ought to 
be remembered that spelling books are made for gen- 
eral use, while the profitable spelling lesson is for par- 
ticular children. One school may study the entire 
grade assignment of words in a spelling book, although 
such a school would be rare, while another school in the 
same town might not be able to study profitably more 
than half such assignment. The spelling book used 
with the needs and capacities of the pupils in mind 
becomes a means of enlarging and enriching the vo- 
cabulary. It should not, however, take the place of 
the individual and class lists made up of the trouble- 
some words in common use. 

In the first four grades, words for spelling should 
be taken from the reading books rather than from 
spellers. These readers seldom contain any but com- 
mon words. They have been studied in the reading 
lessons and therefore pupils can at once concentrate 
their attention upon memorizing the spelling. This 
is a legitimate way to economize time and effort. In 
grades above the fourth, words may be taken from 
readers to some extent, but it is desirable to use a 
modern spelling book also. 



126 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

Pupils need a Method for studying a Spelling 

Lesson 

When a well-chosen list of words has been either 
selected from written exercises or found in a spelling 
book, why is it not enough to assign these in groups of 
ten for pupils to "learn?" Or to quote a tired teach- 
er's remark after a teachers' meeting, "Why must I 
teach my pupils to study a spelling lesson? I don't 
want to do all their thinking for them." 

The answer to the question is simple. Pupils ought 
to be taught how to study a spelling lesson because 
they do not know how unless they are taught. Every 
human task has its better way of being done. To teach 
pupils how to study a spelling lesson is to show them 
how to apply thinking to the mastering of words. If 
the teacher does this and sees to it that pupils employ 
systematic methods in their private study he is help- 
ing them to establish a mental attitude and a habit 
that will be far more useful than the words that may 
be learned in any particular lesson. 

The very appearance of a list of disconnected words 
tempts to a mechanical and superficial kind of study. 
Teachers have yielded to this temptation and natu- 
rally pupils have followed the teachers' lead. Until 
they are shown a better way, pupils will study with 
their eyes only. They will not examine what they see, 
they will not think over what they see, but will without 
discrimination repeat each word the same number of 



ENGLISH 127 

times, whether or not they already know its spelling 
or its meaning. This is parrot thinking. 

It makes little difference whether this thoughtless 
repetition is oral or in writing, its results are equally 
barren. The experience of one bright boy of the sixth 
grade is that of thousands. He was found one even- 
ing by his mother writing with his eyes shut. He said 
in explanation: "The teacher gives us ten words every 
day, and tells us to write each word twenty times. I 
find that after I have written a word five times I can 
shut my eyes and think about something else while I 
write the other fifteen." The mother looked over the 
paper and remarked that she could n't read most of 
them. The boy said, "Oh, that's all right. I can't 
read them myself, but I wrote them, did n't I?" 

Study with the. Teacher 

The teacher's task, then, is to point out to pupils 
what there is in words to think about and to show how 
to think about them before they try to memorize them. 
.For it still remains true that the word must be mem- 
orized, and that this is for most people hard work, 
requiring concentrated and repeated attention. But 
the thoughtful consideration of the word is the neces- 
sary preparation for an intelligent and economical 
memorizing. 

The points to be considered in word-study are pro- 
nunciation, meaning, use, spelling. A few typical 
words, suitable for eighth-grade assignment, have 



128 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

been selected with which to illustrate the teaching of 
these points. In practice, however, no lesson should 
contain as many as five words that require intensive 
study. Two or three such words are enough: — 

1. Tedious. 

2. Forbade. 

3. Invisible. 

4. Mischievous. 

5. Council. 

These words, even if they are in the spelling book, 
should be written on the board. After the pupils have 
studied them for a moment, volunteers will pronounce 
each one. This pronunciation should be deliberate, so 
that the syllables and accent are unmistakable. 

Pronunciation 

If a word is mispronounced, there should be no 
guessing. The teacher should pronounce it, or she 
should give a pointed suggestion such as, "Accent the 
first syllable"; or, "The division of syllables is here"; 
or, "This vowel is long a, not short. Give the sound 
of long a. Put it into the word." Or the pupils may 
quickly consult their dictionaries. 

The accent of words is important. Long words gen- 
erally have two accents, a primary or strong accent, 
and a secondary or weak one. Pupils often reach the 
eighth grade without a proper training in phonics and 
are quite unable to throw stress into the voice on the 
accented syllable. These will need special exercises in 
accenting and in clear enunciation. 



ENGLISH 129 

There are several helps of which pupils should learn 
to make use. Phonics is one of these. The mistake in 
pronunciation of many words lies in one letter, as in 
forbade. The teacher can give quick help, if the pupils 
know a little phonics, by marking the word, forbad 1 '. 
However, it will be seen that this is really another way 
of telling the correct pronunciation, and somewhat 
longer and more cumbersome than orally telling it. 
The skillful teacher will use phonics and diacritical 
marks, but she will not exaggerate their use. 

The recognition of common phonograms in new 
words helps greatly in pronouncing and also in spelling 
them, as in the words, playfully, membership, massive, 
etc. In such words the phonogram division is more 
useful than the syllable division. 

The recognition of phonograms leads naturally, in 
the upper grades, to the learning of a few common 
roots, prefixes and suffixes, and these in turn will give 
occasion for two or three talks by the teacher on the 
origins of our language. 

Lessons in the use of the dictionary 

The dictionary may be helpful in the spelling lesson 
as has been indicated. It is the universal tool for the 
study of words, and before pupils leave the grammar 
grades they should be able to find a given word quickly; 
to understand the signs that indicate syllabication and 
accent; to discover the derivation of words from the 
English equivalents of the foreign words; to pick out 



130 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

the meaning that fits a given content. They should 
know that there is a pronouncing key and where it is to 
be found, even if they cannot use it without the help of 
the teacher. 

Specific training in its use may begin as early as the 
fifth year with exercises like the following: — 

Teacher — Take your dictionaries. Find the first word 
beginning with the letter b; the first word beginning with the 
letters, ba; be; bi. Notice the words at the top of the pages. 
They are put there to help you find the word you want. 

Now find the words, can, cost, cut. 

This is enough for one lesson. A number of such 
short exercises will soon make it possible for pupils to 
find a word quickly, and then similar, brief, pointed 
exercises may be given in accent, in syllabication, and 
in meaning — one at a time. There is no need of haste, 
for not before the seventh year should it be expected 
that pupils will be independent or very skillful in the 
use of the dictionary. 

While pronunciation is important, it is possible to 
be over-insistent on a particular pronunciation. If the 
dictionary allows two pronunciations for a word, as in 
either and tedious; or two spellings, as in programme, 
program, the teacher ought to have a like tolerance. 

Meaning of words and their use 

After the pronunciation is mastered, the meaning 
and the use of each word should be determined. This 
may be done by pupils suggesting synonyms, and put- 



ENGLISH 131 

ting each word into a short sentence that will clearly 
show its meaning. For instance, the sentence, This is a 
tedious task, does not show whether it is a heavy or a 
light task, an agreeable or a disagreeable one. But the 
sentence, To wait for a train is tedious; or, A pleasant 
task, if long continued, may become tedious, at once 
shows that the writer has the meaning clearly in mind. 
Moreover, the sentences should be interesting and the 
thought expressed worth while. Geography, history, 
literature, current events, and general science will fur- 
nish material. The making of such sentences as the 
following will enrich and reinforce the vocabulary : — 

Columbus made a triumphal entrance into Barcelona. 
A hint to the wise is sufficient. 

The glacial ice formerly in the United States is not now in 
existence. 
The interiors of English cathedrals are beautiful. 

The proper use of a word is much more important 
than its definition, as a teacher discovered after a dis- 
cussion in the spelling lesson of the word betrothal. In 
the written exercise at least a quarter of the pupils 
wrote such sentences as, "My sister was betrothal to 
John," "John and Mary were betrothal." This class 
needed much more experience in the oral use of the 
word before they could call it their own. Moreover, 
this is one of the unusual words that should not be 
studied intensively in the elementary schools. Be- 
cause it was in the speller the teacher unwisely in- 
cluded it in the spelling lesson. Much time also may 



132 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

be wasted in putting into sentences common words 
whose meaning is well known, such as plate, apple, 
doctor. 

Teaching how to study the spelling lesson 

When the pronunciation, meaning and use of a 
word are known, pupils are ready to study its spelling. 
They should not be asked to learn the spelling of any 
words that they do not thus know. In this study the 
point of difficulty should be discovered first. For 
example, the word tedious is written on the board. 
Pupils will readily see that dious is the part that needs 
attention. This part will be underlined, or traced over 
with red chalk, or inclosed in a circle, or in some way 
emphasized. Pupils will be asked to close their eyes 
and see the word, to spell it in concert, to write it on a 
scrap of paper, to spell it in turn individually, to turn 
the paper and write it again. One or two may step to 
the board and write it, spelling aloud as they write. In 
the same way, the peculiar danger point in each word 
in the lesson will be located, emphasized in various 
ways and learned. 

Pupils should be trained also to discriminate be- 
tween the easy and difficult words in a given list, and 
to concentrate effort on the latter, rather than thought- 
lessly to give equal study to all. For example, of the 
names of the days of the week there is greater danger 
of misspelling Tuesday and Wednesday than the others. 
Therefore attention should be centered on these. 



ENGLISH 133 

Besides the analysis and methods of study referred 
to, it will be found that quick visualizing of the words 
is a valuable aid in learning to spell them. (Care should 
be taken first to find out whether or not the pupil's eye- 
sight is good.) After a word is written on the board 
and erased, the teacher may ask for the third letter, 
next to the last letter, the second syllable, etc. No 
pupil can answer unless he has formed a distinct men- 
tal image of the arrangement of the letters in the word. 
The teacher may ask a pupil to turn to some page of 
his reader (or geography) and look at the last word or 
the last three words. The book is then closed and the 
word or words are spelled orally or they are written. 

In the list of five words on a previous page, council 
was included to call attention to a class of troublesome 
words. This class includes those groups of words that 
sound alike, or nearly alike, but are spelled differently. 
Besides council, counsel, there are to, too, two; respect- 
fully, respectively; principal, principle; etc. Is it better 
to teach these separately or together? Experiments 
and tests have been made to determine which is the 
better way, but the results have been inconclusive. On 
general principles, however, it may be said that, if one 
is a stranger to the word council, he would become ac- 
quainted with it best by studying it first alone, fixing 
in mind that a committee meeting is a council, that 
congress is a council, that a jury is a council; in short, 
that a council is a body of people gathered together for 
discussion. When this is really fixed and the word is 



134 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

correctly used again and again, the other word counsel 
may be introduced with little danger that confusion 
will result. In making comparisons it is always desir- 
able to have one of the things clear, definite and famil- 
iar. There is thus a basis for comparison. " One thing 
at a time" is a safe rule to follow in teaching spelling 
as in other lines of work. 

Variety of methods in teaching and drilling is desirable 

The use of varied methods in teaching and drilling is 
more effective than any one method, both because it 
adds interest to an exercise that may easily become 
monotonous, and also because tests seem to show that 
a combination method of seeing words, of hearing, of 
spelling them aloud, and of writing them, produces the 
best results, as the following reports indicate. 

A succession of letters in a list of meaningless words 
as gemalask, hetlimgil, etc., was read to a class (audi- 
tory), then the list was written plainly on cardboard 
and shown to the class (visual), and finally the children 
both saw and pronounced the words (combination of 
auditory, motor, and visual). In the last-named exer- 
cise the pupils gained the highest per cent in correct 
spelling. The three percentages were forty-five, sixty- 
six, and seventy-four, respectively. 

In another school some twenty nonsense words were 
shown to children, and the request was made that the 
lips be kept closed or fixed while looking at the combi- 
nation. Most of the children, however, soon lapsed 



ENGLISH 135 

into the use of their lips. At another time, while keep- 
ing the lips closed, it was noticed that the fingers and 
hands were unconsciously moved as if to call off the 
letters silently. So strong does this tendency appear to 
be that it is evident that the motor accompaniment is 
usually helpful in learning to spell. 

In a series of experiments with upwards of seven hundred 
children, between the ages of six and twelve years, various 
modes of presenting words resulted in the following relative 
numbers of misspelled words : l — 

Mode of presentation Per cent of error 

Words heard 6.48 

Words heard and spelled aloud by pupil 4.66 

Words seen 2.60 

Words seen and spelled aloud by pupil 2.27 

Words seen, spelled aloud, and written by pupil ... 1.00 

Pupils' Private Study 

It cannot be too much emphasized that the teacher's 
instruction and the class study have for their constant 
purpose to replace the pupils' natural haphazard way 
of studying by thoughtful, systematic ways. Therefore 
they will be questioned frequently as to how they stud- 
ied such a word, or the lesson as a whole; and the 
teacher will remind them to use such and such a 
method when they study a particular lesson by them- 
selves. Their private study should imitate both the 
method and the spirit of the lesson with the teacher. 

The home lessons should be studied with the same 
thoughtfulness. Spelling is one of the subjects in which 

1 Dr. J. W. Baird, Clark University, The Psychology of Spelling. 



136 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

parents can render substantial aid. Children who take 
home lists of words to spell should first be tested, both 
orally and in writing, to see how many they know, the 
others being noted for further study. After the latter 
have been studied the test can be given again until all 
are recited correctly. Word games, anagrams, etc., 
may be brought to the attention of the pupils by hav- 
ing them tried in the schoolroom. Many children will 
secure the necessary material and play the games at 
home, and all poor spellers should be urged to do sc 
The words assigned for home work should be first stud- 
ied with the teacher in school, except possibly in the 
upper grades, provided the pupils have acquired the 
habit of thoughtful study. 

Tests and Reviews 

Generally tests should be written. In the higher 
grades the test on a single lesson should be on the day 
following the assignment or study. By this delay, time 
is allowed for fixing the words in mind and the exercise 
becomes a review as well as a test. There should be 
tests in word study, in methods of private study, as 
well as in spelling. 

Children may test one another at the close of a study 
period by giving the words for oral or written spelling. 
Each one may test himself by comparing his own spell- 
ing with the words in his book or on the board. 

The common practice of having each pupil mark his 
own or his neighbor's paper is a good one. While this 



ENGLISH 137 

saves the teacher much labor, it serves a more valuable 
purpose in cultivating in each child the habit of looking 
critically at words. But the marking of papers by 
pupils needs careful supervision. The teacher may 
profitably mark a few papers every day, particularly 
of those who may be careless, and the work of each 
pupil ought to be examined often enough to keep 
the teacher in touch with individual strength and 
weakness. 

Occasionally oral tests may be introduced for the 
sake of variety. The old-fashioned spelling matches, 
"spelling down" contests, have still their limited value 
as class exercises, provided the words used have been 
previously studied. 

In all spelling tests a high standard should be ex- 
pected. If only those words that have been studied 
appear in the test a minimum of ninety per cent correct 
spelling may properly be demanded. 

The teacher's work also may be tested by the qual- 
ity and spirit of the spelling lesson as well as by 
the pupils' success in spelling a list of miscellaneous 
words. 

Reviews are necessary, particularly of common 
words liable to be misspelled. If, in general, only 
those words are studied for spelling that are to become 
a part of the pupil's everyday vocabulary, these must 
be brought into use again and again, and not in the 
spelling lesson only. It must not be assumed that a 
given word is really possessed because it has been used 



138 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

in an isolated sentence and has been spelled correctly 
once or twice. 

Among the available devices for testing and review 
the teacher will find dictation exercises very useful. 
The selection for dictation ought to be brief, easily 
understood, and it should be studied with the class 
before it is dictated, unless it is used as a test for words 
already studied. 

For such study as is here outlined, not more than 
two or three new words could be considered in one pe- 
riod in the primary grades, and not more than five new 
ones in the grammar grades. Two to five review words 
might be added. Three lessons per week of from ten to 
fifteen minutes, according to the grade, is ample time 
to assign to this subject provided spelling is not neg- 
lected in the written work of other subjects. In this 
time it is possible to give all needed instruction, class 
study and drill; for no one lesson will call for a discus- 
sion of all or of any large number of the points here 
mentioned. 

Type Lessons 

To summarize and illustrate the foregoing discus- 
sion, two type lessons are given: 1 — 

a 

Time limit — twenty minutes 

1. Write one of the words on the blackboard and teach it 
in accordance with the following plan. Then write the 

1 Reported by Principal H. C. Pearson in Teachers College Record, 
January, 1912. 



ENGLISH 139 

next word, teaching it in the same way, and so on, with 
the rest of the words. 

(a) While writing the word, pronounce it distinctly. 
(6) Develop the meaning orally, either by calling for a 
sentence using the word or by giving its definition. 

(c) Indicate the syllables. Call on pupils to spell orally, 
by syllables. Have them indicate what part of the 
word presents difficulties, or whether the word con- 
tains parts they already know. 

(d) Have pupils write the word, pronouncing it softly as 
they write. It would be well to have a new sentence 
given, using the word, before they do this. This is to 
emphasize strongly the meaning of the word again 
just before the child writes it. 

(e) Allow the class a moment in which to look at the 
word again and then have them close eyes and try 
to visualize it, or use any other device of a similar 
nature. Have considerable repetition, both oral and 
written. 

2. After the various words of the day's lesson have been 
studied in this way, allow a few moments for studying 
again the whole list, suggesting that each pupil empha- 
size the words he thinks he does n't know. This time 
should be limited so that every pupil will attend vigor- 
ously and intensively. Call upon pupils individually 
and in concert to spell the whole list without looking at 
the board. Refer them to the board again if they hesi- 
tate. 

3. Then erase all words from blackboard and dictate the 
words to the class, using each word in a sentence first. 

b 

Time limit — fifteen minutes, including the dictation 

1. The first word was written on the board in the presence 
of the class, and then studied as follows : — 

(a) Its meaning was given, and used in a sentence. 

(b) It was spelled aloud in concert, and individually by 
the poor spellers. 



140 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

(c) Its peculiarities, such as silent letters, (ri and ie 
combinations, etc., were pointed out. 

(d) The word was written once, twice or three times by 
the pupils who spelled silently as they wrote. 

2. Each word in turn was written on the board and studied 
in the same way. 

3. Next the whole column was reviewed orally, the chil- 
dren first spelling each word from the board and then 
turning from the board, spelling again (either silently 
or aloud) and verifying results by consulting the board. 

4. The words were then erased from the board. Papers 
were put out of sight, and the words were dictated. 

Rules for Spelling 

Rules for spelling were highly thought of in times 
past and pupils were compelled to memorize a consid- 
erable number of them. But the English language has 
never subjected itself to the yoke of spelling rules and 
grammar rules. It is too much alive. It has an ances- 
try that is too miscellaneous to be thus harnessed 
by formulas and generalizations. The rules that have 
been made are supplemented by so many exceptions 
that they are of little use to any one but the philolo- 
gist. 

However, four of the most common rules are sug- 
gested here. If they are taught, they should be scat- 
tered through the grades, and they should be taught 
inductively, formulated by the teacher and pupils 
studying together a number of illustrative words : — 

Rule 1. Final y, when preceded by a consonant, is gen- 
erally changed to ie when a letter or syllable is added. Ex., 
lady, ladies; berry, berries; fly, flies; dry, dries; bury, buries; 



ENGLISH 141 

mercy, mercies; hurry, hurries. But final y is retained before a 
syllable beginning with i, to prevent the doubling of the i. 
Ex., dying, trying, flying. 

Rule 2. Final y, preceded by a vowel, generally remains 
unchanged when a letter or syllable is added. Ex., day, days; 
lay, lays; key, keys; chimney, chimneys; valley, valleys; essay, 
essays. 

Rule 3. Words of one syllable ending in a consonant pre- 
ceded by a single vowel, double the consonant before a suffix 
beginning with a vowel. Ex., big, bigger; wit, witty; rob, rob- 
ber; clan, clannish. 

Rule If.. Words of more than one syllable, accented on the 
last, and ending in a single consonant preceded by a single 
vowel, double the final consonant when a syllable is added. 
Ex., permit, permitting; begin, beginning; infer, inferring; 
defer, deferring. 

But, after all, if one must stop to give a rule before 
he is sure that his spelling is correct, he can scarcely 
claim to know the word. It would be better to learn the 
spelling so thoroughly that the rule is unnecessary. 

Interest 

But to make progress in spelling a pupil must be 

interested in his spelling tasks. Dr. Dewey writes : — 

s Interest is obtained not by thinking about it and consciously 
aiming at it, but by considering and aiming at the conditions 
that lie back of it, and compel it. If we discover a child's urgent 
needs and powers, and if we can supply him with materials, 
appliances and resources ... we shall not have to think 
about interest. 1 

Somehow or other, then, the spelling work must be 
so organized and directed that the pupils will have an 
inner impulse that incites them to it. The mere fact 

1 Interest and Effort in Education. 



142 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

that a task has been assigned produces this working 
impulse in a few children. The fear of punishment 
arouses it in a few others. But there are other means 
available that are likely to appeal more strongly to 
different types of personality. 

A person is always most interested in carrying out 
plans he has helped make. Children as well as grown 
people put more heart into working with others than 
they do into working for others. If they are allowed to 
cooperate with the teacher they will be found fertile 
in suggestions. This is one reason why the teacher- 
class study lesson is proving so useful. 

The teacher may secure this cooperation by asking 
pupils to bring to class special lists of words, such as 
those used on the playground, in the home kitchen, 
those relating to dining or sleeping rooms, etc. He may 
invite them to appoint committees to make special 
lists, one for sign boards (omitting proper names), 
another for grocery stores, etc. Unusual words will be 
brought in, but here again the teacher may allow the 
pupils to pass judgment, and themselves exclude those 
that are undesirable for use in the spelling lesson. 

Not only may pupils profitably help select the words 
for study, but they may be made partners in determin- 
ing the parts of words that require special attention. 

It has been found very stimulating to teachers and 
pupils to cooperate in the making of a " school district 
list," the several schools of a district making individual 
lists that are used for the larger "district" list. 



ENGLISH 143 

Competition in its varied forms is a legitimate incen- 
tive. It appeals to a universal human interest. There 
are two kinds of competition. Two persons may com- 
pete with one another, or each one may compete with 
himself, i.e., he may try to improve his own record. 
The latter kind of competition is fully as interesting as 
the former. The athlete tries to surpass himself until 
the field-day arrives, when he pits his best self against 
his rival. The golfer tries to raise his own score. The 
girl tries to improve her own technique by practice on 
the piano. 

This kind of competition ought to be employed in 
school much more than it is. If Johnny does better 
to-day than yesterday, he may not receive a gilt star, 
indicating perfect; but he should receive a red one, 
meaning, "Look out for Johnny. He's coming along." 

A row of pupils may strive to better the average of 
the row as well as to outdo the next one. A room may 
raise its average, if it cannot always be the banner 
room of the building. 

School district and county spelling contests will 
arouse the interest of all the schools that compete, and 
be of great benefit provided those in charge restrict the 
words to those in common use, give prizes for perfect 
scores, and also take into account the quality of work 
done in preparation for the contest. The "spelling- 
down" contest in which unusual words are used to 
eliminate the contestants is likely to promote unsound 
and indefensible practices in the school. 



144 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

Another form of contest consists in having each 
member of a class write a paragraph in which a number 
of words is to be used. The paragraph best in thought, 
expression, and punctuation may be used as a dicta- 
tion exercise. This paragraph may be selected by a 
small committee of the class, one member of which 
may be one of the poorer spellers. 

The spelling lesson may be made one of the most 
interesting of school exercises. It has the always at- 
tractive quality of brevity. The lesson may be most 
varied in character. It should be pointed and snappy. 
If the words are well selected and pupils are made part- 
ners with the teacher, they will like to spell. In fact, 
it has been the experience of many teachers that a 
larger degree of success may be attained in spelling 
than in any other subject. 

COLLATERAL READING 

1. On spelling lists: — 

The Child and His Spelling. W. A. Cook and M. V. O'Shea. 
Chapter XII. 

2. On conclusions of a scientific study of spelling: — 

Spelling Efficiency in Relation to Age, Grade and the Question 
of Transfer. J. E. W. Wallin. 
Chapter VI. 

3. On teaching spelling: — 

The Teaching of Spelling. Henry Suzzallo. 
Chapters VI, VII, VIII, IX. 
Also the following: — 

Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling. Leonard P. Ayres. 

"The data of this scale are computed from an aggregate of 1,400,000 
spellings by 70,000 children in 84 cities throughout the country. The words 
are 1,000 in number and the list is the product of combining different 
studies with the object of identifying the 1,000 commonest words in Eng- 
lish writing. Copies of this scale may be obtained for five cents apiece. 
Copies of the monograph describing the investigations which produced it 
may be obtained for 30 cents each. Address the Russell Sage Foundation. 
Division of Education, 130 East 22d Street, New York City." 



ENGLISH 145 

Penmanship 

That teachers generally are somewhat impatient 
over the many radical changes that have been made in 
the teaching of penmanship during the last twenty 
years is not to be wondered at. No small part of the 
cause of these changes was the laudable spirit of ex- 
perimentation to better the teaching of a subject in 
which results were unsatisfactory. It must be admitted, 
however, that many times changes have been due to a 
feverish ambition to be progressive, and that often a 
new system has been adopted for superficial reasons. 
But standards of attainment and standards of method 
are showing their beneficial influence in the teaching of 
penmanship as they are in the teaching of other sub- 
jects. As these standards prevail, generally accepted 
methods to realize desirable purposes will be estab- 
lished. Changes will be in detail only, as farther exper- 
iment and investigation throw additional light on the 
subject. 

Points on which there is general agreement 

While, then, the final word has not been said on the 
teaching of penmanship, there yet appears to be agree- 
ment on a few fundamental points that are here briefly 
stated: — 

1. In judging the penmanship of pupils the method of 
writing, — that is, pen holding, movement, ease, and 
speed, — should be considered, as well as legibility, and 
beauty of line and form. 



146 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

2. A moderate slant is better than vertical writing, or than 
an extreme slant. Uniformity of slant is more impor- 
tant than conformity to a particular degree of slant. 

3. A method of writing by which the arm muscles are used 
for the fundamental movements, with the fingers acting 
as assistants, is productive of better results than a 
method that makes use of the fingers alone. 

4. Copying is not a good method of teaching penmanship. 
There should be systematic instruction in word and let- 
ter forms, in pen holding and movement, followed by 
practice. 

5. To establish desirable habits in writing, the instruction 
given in penmanship lessons must be applied not simply 
in those lessons but at all times in all written work. 

6. The forms written by young children should be large. 

7. The teacher should himself practice a correct method of 
writing. If he does not exemplify the methods he is 
teaching, pupils have little reason to adopt them. 

8 . A well-graded series of copybooks or copyslips is desir- 
able, as a guide for teacher and pupils. 

9. The individuality of pupils should be respected in 
teaching penmanship as in teaching other subjects. 



The qualities of good penmanship 

A teacher's conception of what constitutes good 
penmanship determines the demands he makes on the 
pupils and his methods of instruction. If his chief con- 
cern is to secure artistic samples of writing for display, 
the pupils will spend their time in the penmanship 
lessons making copies of models that he has selected. 
He will be indifferent to the way they write. His inter- 
est centers in the product. 

But the teacher who views penmanship as a practical 
art that all must daily use more or less, will rate crafts- 



ENGLISH 147 

manship as no less important than the product. He 
will recognize that the product in penmanship as in all 
other crafts is beautiful if it serves well its purpose. 

Legible and fluent writing possesses this practical 
beauty and is much more serviceable than the ornate. 
Some pupils may have a preference for elaborate pen- 
manship. They like to make scrolls and flourishes. 
Those pupils will need little help. But the teacher will 
give his chief attention to training pupils to make let- 
ters that are without flourish, that are of legible size 
and well proportioned, that have a moderate and uni- 
form slant, that are well and uniformly spaced, and 
that have lines which are firm and unshaded. 

Speed is also a quality of good penmanship. Chil- 
dren differ in their ability to develop it without sacri- 
ficing form, but the teacher should try to have each 
pupil do all his writing without haste but at an efficient 
rate of speed. To this end special exercises should be 
given in the penmanship lessons. 

But when it is agreed that the penmanship taught in 
school should be the unadorned, legible, fluent sort 
that will serve best the everyday needs of common 
life, there are still likely to arise differences of opinion 
as to whether a particular specimen meets these 
requirements. 

Penmanship standards have been proposed. They 
consist of a number of carefully selected specimens 
arranged in a series, exemplifying types of penman- 
ship, ranging from poor to excellent as judged from 



148 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

the practical point of view. There are at present three 
such series of standards or scales as they are called. 
One has been devised by Dr. Edward L. Thorndike, of 
Columbia University, New York; one by Dr. Leonard 
P. Ayres, of the Russell Sage Foundation, New York 
City; and one by Mr. Harry Houston, Supervisor of 
Penmanship, New Haven, Connecticut. The Houston 
Scale takes into account the element of speed, and the 
others do not. These scales have a very limited use, 
they are not easy to apply as standards of judgment, 
but they are helpful as indicators, pointing to the 
homely virtues of penmanship in its character of com- 
mon servant in common affairs. With guidance pupils 
may receive some benefit by comparing their own 
writing with the samples in a scale. Having located 
their writing in the lower or middle range they may 
then put for themselves the task of bringing it up a 
grade higher. 

The conduct of a penmanship lesson 

The following summary of a penmanship lesson 
suggests a good method of instruction and training: — 

Material should be passed and collected in an orderly 
way. 

The teacher should write the copy on the board so that 
pupils may observe the process. This writing should be large. 
Lines may be drawn on the board five or six inches apart, 
representing the lines on the pupils' paper. The blackboard 
copy should fill the same space proportionately between the 
lines that the writing of pupils is expected to fill on their 
paper. While writing the copy, the difficult letters and com- 



ENGLISH 149 

binations may be discussed and corrections made in previous 
lessons may be recalled. 

Position and pen holding are of first importance. Special 
exercises and drills for them are desirable at the beginning of 
a lesson, and they should be introduced at any other time 
when the class needs them. 

The speed ought to be governed by the ability of the class. 
It should be as fast as is consistent with the making of good 
forms, and should increase from grade to grade. In class ex- 
ercises all should keep together. At other times individual 
ability should govern speed. The teacher ought not to 
"count" all the time, but only enough to indicate the speed 
desired. Pupils should learn to be self-reliant. 

There should be frequent comparison of the pupils' writing 
with the copy. The teacher may make sure that proper at- 
tention is being given to the copy by stopping the writing and 
asking: "Is your writing too large or too small? Is the spac- 
ing too narrow? Is there too much slant or not enough?" 

The blackboard ought to be used often by the teacher to 
show how the faults noted may be overcome, and by pupils to 
correct individual faults. 

When pupils have difficulty in correcting a fault, they may 
go for a time to the opposite extreme until the old habit is 
broken. If the writing is too small, it may be made too large. 
If a letter is too short, it may be made too long. 

Instruction should be more by showing than by telling. 

The most conspicuous or fundamental faults should be 
corrected first. 

When the penmanship is generally poor and the class is 
large, the class method of instruction should predominate, 
individual help being reserved for those who need it most. 
When a majority of the pupils write well, it is possible to give 
more individual instruction. 

Interest and enthusiasm may be aroused (a) by the teach- 
er's interest and enthusiasm, (b) by preserving and exhibiting 
written work, (c) by making booklets of specimens of exer- 
cises and other penmanship work, (d) by exchanging speci- 
mens between classes and rooms, (e) by placing on the board 
names of pupils making improvement, (J) by having com- 



150 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

mittees of pupils designate those who are writing in the best 
position, (g) by friendly rivalry between rows or classes or 
rooms. 

To supplement this summary of a penmanship les- 
son, several phases of the lesson will be specially con- 
sidered. The following specific statements will indicate 
the points to be attended to in position and pen 
holding: — 

1. Both feet should rest on the floor. 

2. The body should be well poised and inclined slightly 
forward. 

3. Nearly all of the forearm should rest on the desk. 

4. The upper and the lower arm should form a right or an 
obtuse angle, but never an acute angle. 

5. The paper should be turned so that the forearm is at a 
right angle with the lines of the paper. 

6. The arms should remain on the desk and the paper 
should be pushed forward. 

7. The left hand should be kept at the left edge of the 
paper opposite the right hand. 

8. The forefinger should be one inch from the point of the 
pen or pencil. 

9. The thumb should be bent considerably and rest about 
one and one half inches from the point of the pencil or 
pen. 

10. The hand should be about half closed, holding the pen 
or pencil without tension. 

11. The third and fourth fingers should be folded back a 
little, the ends resting on the paper, supporting the 
hand. 

12. The hand and wrist should not rest on the paper. 

13. The penholder should point over the upper arm. 

14. Both pen points should rest squarely on the paper. 

If these directions are followed, or, what is better, if 
the position of the pupils is tested and corrected by 



ENGLISH 151 

these directions, a natural and healthful position will 
be assured. Any position that interferes with the free 
use of the circulatory and respiratory organs, or that is 
strained, should be corrected at once. 

The kind of muscular action used in writing is most 
important. The movement to be finally used in all 
writing is fundamentally the arm movement. Many 
expert writers use the arm movement only — other 
equally good writers use a combination of the arm and 
finger movements. Movement drills should be given 
persistently, as they will lay the foundation for good 
penmanship. 

Left-handed pupils 

Left-handed pupils are somewhat of a problem for 
the teacher of penmanship. Unless a pupil uses his left 
hand skillfully, he should be urged to learn to use the 
right hand, especially in the lower grades. If, however, 
the left-hand habit has become fixed, it is very difficult 
to change it after the age of twelve years. Pupils may 
be helped to use the right hand by giving them a large 
amount of practice on the blackboard. They will find 
it easier to use the right hand in the large movements 
of blackboard writing than in the smaller movements 
with the pen. To further encourage this change, arith- 
metic and composition exercises may be done on the 
board on condition that the right hand is used. Little 
however can be accomplished unless the pupil him- 
self seriously desires to become a right-handed penman. 



152 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

Use of the blackboard 

During the penmanship period the teacher will be 
active in directing the class in movement drills, in dis- 
cussing letter forms and in watching and helping indi- 
viduals according to their need. To do these varied 
things with economy of time and effort he will make 
frequent use of the blackboard. By it he can give 
pointed suggestions and illustrate a direction or a 
correction. But he will not be unmindful of the fact 
that children seated in different parts of the room see 
the board from different angles. It thus happens that 
all do not see alike what is written. Moreover, a few 
may not see it clearly because of poor eyesight, or 
because the light does not strike the board at an angle 
favorable for them. However, as training in hygiene 
becomes effective, pupils will take care of these matters 
very largely themselves. 

Although the teacher cannot instruct successfully in 
penmanship without the blackboard, the limitations 
just referred to make it undesirable for general use in 
setting copies. It is best used for instruction and illus- 
tration. Pupils should find their guides for form, size 
and slant for the most part in copy-books or on copy- 
slips. 

While illustrating on the board the teacher should be 
careful to stand so that pupils may see the writing or 
the exercise as it is formed under his hand. While this 
is important in all grades, it is particularly so in pri- 



ENGLISH 153 

mary grades. Firm, white lines should be used in 
blackboard writing. The quality of the line is much 
more important than the size of the letters. Next in 
importance to the whiteness of the line is the space 
between the lines. 

Time to be given to 'penmanship lessons 

To secure desirable results in penmanship an ade- 
quate amount of time must be devoted to it. This is as 
necessary as is the use of good methods. It is much 
more profitable, however, to have occasional short 
periods of stimulating instruction and intensive prac- 
tice than to have long periods of undirected copying. 
Good results ought to be possible if an average of sixty 
minutes per week are given to such study and practice 
as is here recommended. This time should be divided 
into periods of ten to twenty minutes each, the longer 
periods prevailing in the upper grades. 

In schools with several grades the entire school may 
be taken together for movement drills, but not more 
than two or at most three different grades of copy- 
books should be used in such a school. 

Penmanship and other subjects 

It is too often the case that the teacher's interest in 
position, pen holding and movement is confined to the 
penmanship lessons. At other times he is concerned 
solely with the appearance of the written papers. Such 
an attitude will surely lead to a similar indifference 



154 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

on the part of the pupils, delaying the progress they 
would otherwise make. 

The penmanship lesson is, of course, not an end in 
itself. The effects of it should appear whenever the 
pupils write, and if they do not appear, the lesson has 
been useless. Somehow or other the teacher should 
project her penmanship influence into all the pupils' 
written work. This should be done not alone by criti- 
cizing the result, but by putting the weight of influence 
at the equally important point — the process. It is not 
difficult to do this, for occasionally the teacher may 
take a couple of minutes to inspect those who are writ- 
ing at their seats, noting position, movement, etc., 
calling attention to what is good or poor in these par- 
ticulars. A list may be made of those who habitually 
write in the correct way, and to this list names may be 
added as the honor is deserved. Principals also may 
add their influence by making mention of these mat- 
ters as they pass from room to room. 

Arithmetic is a subject that needs particularly the 
penmanship teacher's attention. From time to time in 
each elementary grade, but especially in the seventh 
and eighth grades, arithmetic papers and the arith- 
metic work done at the board should be viewed from 
the standpoint of the figures, their form, size and pleas- 
ing arrangement. Where these are crude and faulty, 
time should be taken in the arithmetic period to repeat 
and to put into practice the instruction of the penman- 
ship lesson. In every grade some pupils will be found 



ENGLISH 155 

who will not make good figures without individual 
instruction and special drills. This should be given 
wherever the need for it is discovered, for every teacher 
is first a foundation builder, and second a builder of 
superstructures. The prime duty of each is, then, to 
discover weaknesses in the foundations, and having 
discovered them, not to waste time criticising former 
teachers or the pupils' lack of opportunity, but to 
strengthen the weakness. A foundation weakness, all 
too common in elementary mathematics, is in the mak- 
ing of figures. 

Tests in penmanship 

The sort of tests that are given in penmanship will 
determine largely the kind of work teachers and pupils 
will do. For both must and will prepare for the ex- 
pected test. 

There is an uneducational use of tests, as well as an 
educational use. If they are used solely or principally 
to disclose what pupils do not know or cannot do, they 
become scourges under the blows of which the weak 
fail. But if they are used to reveal to the teacher and 
to each pupil what has been done well, what success 
has been attained in a given period of study, indirectly 
revealing the weaknesses, tests become milestones of 
progress. Pupils do not dread approaching amilestone. 
It is a proof of progress. However, milestones lose 
much of their interest if they are placed at quarter- 
mile intervals. Tests should not be too frequent. 



156 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

Most tests then should be given to measure improve- 
ment — not so much general as particular improve- 
ment. There should be separate tests for each element 
that goes to make up good penmanship. For instance, 
the teacher may say at the beginning of a lesson, "We 
have been trying to write with good, uniform spacing. 
I shall rate each one to-day on the improvement he has 
made in spacing." In the same way at other times 
improvement in pen holding, movement, etc., may 
be tested. 

It is possible to devise a general test in which all 
these elements are included. The following is sug- 
gested. The time limit and the vocabulary of the 
selection are appropriate for the eighth grade. 

A typical test in penmanship 

The following selection is to be copied or written 
from dictation. Pupils should be allowed to read the 
selection through before writing it. 

Those giving the test will need to observe the pu- 
pils as they write in order to rate them on items (1) 
and (2). 

Pupils will record at the bottom of their written 
paper the time taken in the test. 

In rating allow (1) 20 points for position. 

(2) 20 points for correct and easy 

movement. 

(3) 5 points for speed. 

(4) 10 points for good size. 



ENGLISH 157 

(5) 10 points for good, uniform slant. 

(6) 10 points for good shape of 

letters. 

(7) 10 points for good spacing. 

(8) 10 points for beauty of writing. 

(9) 5 points for improvement since 

the last test. 

{Extract from a letter of Lord Chesterfield to his son) 



Name, School, 

Date, 



London, July the 30th, 1747. 
Dear Boy: — 

As you must attend to your manners, so you must not 
neglect your person; but take care to be very clean, well 
dressed, and genteel; to have no disagreeable attitudes, nor 
awkward tricks; which many people accustom themselves to, 
and then cannot leave off. Do you take care to keep your 
teeth very clean, by washing them constantly every morning, 
and after every meal? This is very necessary, both to pre- 
serve your teeth a great while, and to save you a great deal of 
pain. Mine have plagued me long, and are now falling out, 
merely for want of care when I was your age. 

My Lord Bacon says that a pleasing figure is a perpetual 
letter of recommendation. It is certainly a forerunner of 
merit, and smooths the way for it. 

Your Papa. 

Note: — The actual writing of these paragraphs 
should not require more than ten minutes. If more 
time is used, give no credit for speed. 

Use a penmanship scale if possible, in judging the 
qualities of the specimen of writing. 



158 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

In Primary Grades 

It is the general custom in this country to begin the 
teaching of writing and of reading at the same time. A 
pencil of large size and soft lead is the best for use dur- 
ing the first months, and pupils should practice much 
at the blackboard. 

It will be necessary to teach pupils to hold the 
crayon properly between the thumb and first finger 
with the upper end pointing into the palm of the hand. 
Half a crayon is as long as can be used. Pupils should 
stand squarely on both feet, facing the board and not 
too close to it. The first aim is to get the form in the 
rough, and the pupil ought not to be hampered or con- 
fused by many details or by too high a standard of per- 
fection. Pupils should not be subjected to strain of eye, 
of nervous system, or of muscles of body or hand. The 
teacher will remember that in teaching penmanship to 
children of six and seven years of age, the school is 
forcing upon them a training that their nervous and 
muscular systems are not yet adapted to take. The 
strain will be lightened, if the teacher keeps the writing 
large, and especially if she keeps the amount of it 
within reasonable limits. 

Moreover, too much should not be attempted at one 
time. A short teaching exercise in which one point is 
emphasized followed by practice on that point is better 
than lengthy instruction on several points with little 
practice, or all practice and no instruction. The prac- 



ENGLISH 159 

tice will show to the teacher whether or not instruction 
has been understood. At times a point must be taught 
again. It is often well to have the class imitate the 
teacher as he makes a letter or illustrates a position or 
movement. At other times, John and Mary may step 
to the board and practice until improvement or grasp 
of the idea is evident. At other times, an entire row 
may work at the board. Under sympathetic instruc- 
tion that is brief, pointed, individual, and optimistic, 
a class is bound to be happy at its work, and to im- 
prove. 

While in many important particulars there is no dis- 
agreement among directors of penmanship teaching, in 
other particulars there is a very decided difference of 
opinion and of practice. For instance, there appears to 
be no common custom in beginning the use of pen and 
ink. Some prefer to have pupils use these the first day 
of school, others would delay until the third or fourth 
year. Probably the growing custom is to introduce 
them during the second year. The exact time is doubt- 
less not so important as the way in which penmanship 
is taught. A large penholder, a large pen with round 
point, practice in making large letters, and short peri- 
ods of writing, will reduce the causes of weariness that 
lead to cramping the hand and to other harmful 
habits. 

While the emphasis in the early years is on form, at 
the same time the forms should be produced with in- 
creasing ease and freedom. To this end, movement 



160 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

drills that lead to the various letter forms and their 
combination should be practiced from the beginning. 

Large sheets of rough, unruled paper are best for the 
early writing exercises. Wax crayons or large, soft 
pencils will promote a freer movement than smaller 
tools. 

When it is time to use a pen, one of large size with a 
smooth, round point should be selected. 

Good paper should be furnished for use with the pen. 
Paper ruled with a base line only should be used. The 
distance between lines should be as follows: — 

First Grade — one inch. 
Second Grade — five-eighths inch. 

Third Grade — half inch. 
Fourth Grade — three-eighths inch. 

In schools with several grades, it will be well to have 
but two kinds of paper. The five-eighths inch ruling 
may be selected for the first and second grades, and the 
three-eighths inch ruling for all other grades. 

Pencil, pen, paper and ink should be carefully se- 
lected. Good work cannot be done with poor materials 
and poor tools. Children should be taught to use ma- 
terials economically and to take good care of their tools. 
Some of the most valuable practical habits may be 
formed in the process of learning and practicing good 
penmanship. Among these habits may be mentioned 
neatness, orderly and pleasing arrangement of work, 
care in attending to details, economy in the use of 
material and self-criticism. 



ENGLISH 161 

In Intermediate Grades 

In the intermediate grades [fourth to sixth] the child should 
begin the formal drills which will enable him to acquire 
greater skill and fluency in writing. . . . This development of 
skill and facility in the use of the pen should be accomplished, 
in the main, in two or three years. ... At the beginning of 
this period the form of the writing is likely to deteriorate for 
the time being. This is not at all a serious matter, and the 
form will soon improve if the drill is wisely chosen and the 
speed which is used is not too great. 1 

The quality of materials and of the tools has been 
referred to in a previous paragraph, and the recom- 
mendation has been made that paper ruled with base 
line only should be used in all grades, and that, begin- 
ning with the fourth grade, the space between these 
base lines should be three-eighths of an inch. 

As to pens, they should be smooth, sufficiently flex- 
ible to be used without much pressure, and finished so 
that they will hold ink, but allow it to flow without 
blotting. They should not be too fine. 

The penholder should be about three-eighths of an 
inch in diameter at the bottom, and may be of wood, 
cork, or rubber; never of metal. 

In Grammar Grades 

In schools where a single policy has been pursued in 
penmanship instruction, and where teachers have been 
fairly efficient in their instruction and training, a ma- 
jority of the pupils will have become habitually good 

1 Frank N. Freeman, The Teaching of Handwriting. 



162 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

writers by the time the seventh grade is reached. If, 
however, the subject has been neglected in previous 
grades, the time allotted in the seventh and eighth 
grades should be increased. Special exercises should be 
arranged, if possible, for the poorest writers, or they 
may be allowed to go to another room for writing 
lessons. 

Interest in penmanship in these grades may be kept 
alive by frequent tests for speed, for form, for ease and 
fluency. 

What has previously been stated regarding the qual- 
ity and selection of material and of writing tools in the 
lower grade applies in these grades also. In the seventh 
and eighth years pupils should be given considerable 
practice in writing on unruled paper, since the station- 
ery used in social and business correspondence is un- 
ruled. If pupils have learned how to write, they do not 
need base lines or other helps. If there 'is no unruled 
paper, a large sheet of ruled paper may be turned so 
that the writing will be across the lines. 

With instruction and adequate practice, at least one 
half of the pupils should be good to excellent penmen 
at the close of their elementary school course. 

COLLATERAL READING 

1. On teaching penmanship: — 

(a) Psychology and Pedagogy of Writing. Mary E. Thomp- 
son. 

Chapter IV. 

(b) Genetic Psychology for Teachers. C. H. Judd. 

Chapter VII, pages 219-35. 



ENGLISH 163 

2. On minimum essentials: — 

The Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study 
of Education. 

Part I, Chapter V. 
Also the following book: — 

The Teaching of Handwriting. F. N. Freeman. 

A summary of the most recent discussions on the subject. Treats of the 
various elements in handwriting and grade standards with suggestions for 
their application. 



CHAPTER III 

MATHEMATICS 

The influences that are affecting the teaching of 
elementary mathematics are the same that have been 
referred to in the introductory chapter and in the chap- 
ter on "The Teaching of English." These influences 
are bringing instruction in this subject more into har- 
mony with the nature of children and more into con- 
formity with the demands of society. 

Both of these sets of influences operate to make ele- 
mentary mathematics less academic and more practi- 
cal; less abstract and more concrete; less an "attain- 
ment" and more a useful servant. Two definite 
results are evident: first, a narrowing of the field of 
study, and second, an increase of emphasis on skill 
in the more restricted field. 

Arithmetic 

Eliminations 

In admitting the justice of the demand that there be 
taught in the elementary grades only that kind and 
amount of mathematics that is useful in common life, 
it follows that all subjects and parts of subjects in 
arithmetic, that are not found in common business 
practice, must be dropped from the course of study. 



MATHEMATICS 165 

Among these subjects are: 

Cube Root and Square Root with large numbers: 
(The square and cube root of numbers, whose roots 
are discoverable by inspection, should be learned — 
the squares of numbers at least to 12, some may think 
to 25, with the corresponding square roots; the cubes 
of numbers at least to 5, some may think to 10, with 
the corresponding cube roots.) 

Greatest Common Divisor and Least Common Multi- 
ple : (Fractions with denominators larger than 16 are 
seldom found in business. Fractions with denomina- 
tors to 64 are often found in machine shops as units of 
measure, but there is no call to calculate with these 
fractions except in the office of the expert. Those with 
large denominators are expressed in the decimal form. 
The common denominators of the fractions of common 
business and all the factoring needed in using such 
fractions can be calculated mentally.) 

Uncommon applications of Percentage : (In business 
it is seldom, if ever, required to find "the whole" when 
a part is given. The business man knows "the whole," 
i.e., his capital and his costs. He needs to find "the 
part," i.e., gains and losses, as related to capital and 
costs, expressed in common and decimal form. 

In interest problems, also, for the reason just given, 
it is unnecessary to teach "finding the principal when 
time, rate and interest are given," or "finding the 
interest" for unusual rates or for periods not common 
in business practice.) 



166 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

True Discount, Partnership, Compound Proportion, 
Tables of Surveyors 9 Measure, Troy and Apothecaries 9 
Weights, Paper Measure and obsolete units in all other 
tables. 

Problems in Taxes, Insurance, Bonds, Stocks, Partial 
Payments, Bank Discount, Compound Interest, Longi- 
tude and Time, Ratio and Proportion, Lumber Measure 
should be of the simplest kind and they should be used 
for their informational as well as for their mathemati- 
cal value. 

Mensuration of Spheres and Frustums of Pyramids 
and Cones : (It is desirable that the study of mensura- 
tion should be based on real, objective experience. The 
kind of problems should be determined by circum- 
stances. Farm children may profitably calculate the 
capacity of bins and silos. City children will get more 
profit from solving problems relating to streets, side- 
walks, etc. The problems of the paper-hanger, carpet- 
dealer, plasterer, floor-layer, and bricklayer, are spe- 
cialized trade problems subject to trade practices and 
should have little attention in the elementary grades.) 

The Metric System in this country is a specialized 
form of mathematics used in the sciences only. It is, 
at present, like simplified spelling, theoretically desir- 
able, but it has little likelihood of being immediately 
adopted for general use. A few lessons may be given 
for information. 



MATHEMATICS 167 

The Field of Elementary Mathematics 

There will then remain as the legitimate field of ele- 
mentary mathematics : — 

I. Counting numbers. 
II. Reading numbers. 

1. Integers — Arabic and Roman. 

2. Common Fractions. 

3. Decimal Fractions. 

4. Denominate numbers. 

III. Writing numbers. 

1. Integers — Arabic and Roman. 

2. Common Fractions. 

3. Decimal Fractions. 

4. Denominate numbers. 

IV. The Processes. 

1. Addition. ^1 (a) Integers. 

2. Subtraction. I , (b) Common Fractions, 

3. Multiplication. [ (c) Decimal Fractions to 

4. Division. J three places. 
V. Percentage applications. 

1. Trade or Commercial Discount. 

2. Profit or Loss. 

3. Commission. 

4. Simple Interest. 

VI. The following subjects should be treated largely for 
information purposes : — 

1. Taxes. 

2. Insurance. 

3. Stocks. 

4. Bonds. 

5. Bank Discount. 

6. Compound Interest. 

VII. Denominate numbers in useful problems of commu- 
nity value. 
VIII. Geometry in so far as it is required in mensuration and 
in making and reading working drawings in shop work. 



168 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

IX. Algebra in so far as the use of letters is required in 
simple formulas in mensuration and in simple prob- 
lems solved by the equation method. 

Mathematical Skill 

If the field of elementary mathematics is to be thus 
limited by the needs of common business, there will be 
ample time for training for skill, in response to the long- 
time complaint of business men that their young em- 
ployees are not able to use skillfully the mathematics 
they have studied in school. This complaint consti- 
tutes a demand that should not be overlooked. 

Mathematical skill has three phases that are clearly 
separable. One phase is understanding the problem or 
interpretation, another is "figuring" or calculating, 
and the third is use or application. 

If one is to be skillful in any department of life, he 
must know how to attack his problems, how to analyze 
them so that a correct and a reasonably speedy deter- 
mination may be made of what the problems call for, 
and of the data that they give for the solution. More 
and more all work in school is becoming a process of 
solving problems, thereby acquiring the character of 
the world's work. But no subject is so clearly prob- 
lematical in its nature as mathematics. For this rea- 
son, more than for any other, mathematics has held its 
unique place in the estimation of scholars as the "men- 
tal discipline" subject. 

But in their haste to get answers to problems, teach- 
ers have too often neglected the preliminary thinking 



MATHEMATICS 169 

about the problem, which is necessary to its intelligent 
solution. Or, if they have not entirely neglected it, 
they have not realized that if a pupil could habitually 
attack his problems in the right way, half his mathe- 
matical difficulties would not arise to bother him. 

Skill in interpretation 

This attack is a process of interpretation, and is di- 
visible into five parts. First, the pupil must read the 
problem and understand what it means. Second, he 
must state in his own words what the problem calls for, 
i.e., what kind of answer is to be sought. Third, he 
must find the material that the problem gives him to 
work with. Fourth, he must determine how this ma- 
terial should be put together to reveal the required 
answer, i.e., the process or processes. Fifth, he should 
roughly estimate the probable answer as a check upon 
his later, more careful calculations. 

To illustrate these five parts of the process of inter- 
pretation, the following problem may be taken : — 

A dealer buys 250 lb. of twine at 19^ a pound. He sells it 
at 25j£ a pound. How much is the profit on the whole? 

First, the problem is read carefully, silently, and then, if 
desired, orally. 

Second, the problem calls for the profit on all the twine, 
250 lb. 

Third, the problem states that one pound of twine cost 19^f, 
and sells for 25^. 

Fourth, the profit on one pound is found by subtracting 
19j£ from 25^. The profit on 250 lb. is the profit on one 
pound multiplied by 250. 

Fifth, $.19 is approximately $.20. Then $.05 is approxf- 



170 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

mately the profit on one pound. If the profit were $.10 per 
pound, the profit on the whole would be $25. As the profit 
per pound is half of $.10, the total profit is approximately 
half of $25.00 or $12.50. The total profit is somewhat more 
than $12.50. 

Without this preliminary, systematic thinking the 
pupil must work blindly. For lack of training in this 
kind of thinking many pupils advance through the 
grades deficient in the so-called "reasoning" side of 
arithmetic. This kind of training should begin with the 
first problem in the primary grades and it should be 
continued as long as mathematics is studied. Many 
lessons should be given in all grades in which many 
problems are studied in this way for practice in inter- 
pretation alone. 

This is all the explanation a problem needs. The 
elaborate "explanations" so common in the mental 
arithmetic of the past is largely language gymnastics, 
and is mathematical training only in a limited degree. 
While children are naturally logical, they are not natu- 
rally logicians. 

Skill in calculation 

The second kind of skill required in mathematics is 
skill in calculation. This depends upon a mastery of the 
essential mathematical processes, and upon an ability 
to see quickly those relations between numbers that 
will simplify computation. 

First, then, the tables should be learned. A few sug- 
gestions are offered regarding the teaching of them. 



MATHEMATICS 171 

In addition there are forty-five primary combina- 
tions. These are the possible addition combinations of 
any two digits through eighteen. Of these, twenty-five 
combinations make ten or less. The twenty-five com- 
binations should become so familiar, before a study of 
the others is taken up, that the sums and correspond- 
ing differences are recognized instantly without calcu- 
lation; e.g., 7 + 7 should be seen as 14 without think- 
ing 7 and 7 are 14. Again, 3 + 6 is thought 9 without 
adding. It is as easy for pupils to see the sum or 
difference in these related numbers as it is for them 
to see the word at, without spelling it. 

The pupils and teacher should become conscious of 
the fact that some of these combinations are more dif- 
ficult to remember than others. The difficult ones 
should be found and special stress should be laid 
on them. To repeat in drill exercises the well known 
facts as often as those about which there is un- 
certainty is to dissipate energy. 

When working with primary combinations above 10, 
the pupils may be led to see that in adding 10 and 3, 
they are putting together 3 and 10, making "three- 
te(e)n"; and that 4 and 10 makes "four-te(e)n," etc. 
When 9 and 4 are added, the sum is 1 less than 10 and 
4; and when 8 and 4 are added, the sum is 2 less than 
10 and 4, etc. 

As the work in addition progresses, if the pupils are 
shown how, they will rapidly learn to see the sum of 
several numbers at a glance and will learn to add more 



172 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

nearly as they read, In reading, after the words are 
well known, the mind grasps words and groups of 
words as wholes; it does not^top to spell the words. In 
the same way, after learning to see 5 and 3 as 8 without 
adding, it will be just as easy to see 5 and 3 and 2 as 10, 
without adding. In this way, naturally and without 
pressure, pupils will learn how to add by combining 
familiar groups of numbers rather than by combining 
two numbers only at a time. Later it will not be diffi- 
cult to acquire the habit of seeing 

16 16 

4 as 20, and 24 as 40 

without resorting to the slower process. 

After the forty-five primary combinations are 
learned, pupils should be led to build up other com- 
binations for themselves, e.g. , 19 + 9 = 28, 29 + 9 = 38, 
9 + 7 =16, 19 +7 = 26, etc. This is sometimes called 
adding "by endings." It should be a preparation for 
column-adding. 

Drill exercises during the first three years should be 
principally with numbers arranged vertically, as 

4 
5 

rather than horizontally, as 4 + 5. But to meet the 
demands of business there should be some practice in 
adding numbers placed horizontally as well as verti- 
cally. This is illustrated in the following tabulated 
items of expense in a school city : — 



MATHEMATICS 173 

Coal Books Salaries Total 

District 1 $2,000 $200 $10,000 $12,200 

District 2 500 50 2,000 2,550 

District 3 550 150 6,000 6,700 

District 4 450 100 5,050 5,600 

Total $3,500 $500 $23,050 $27,050 

Subtraction is the reverse of addition. Pupils should 
see the relation between the two processes. Training 
to see the difference, where calculation is not necessary, 
is as desirable as training to see the sum. 

Subtraction "by endings" should be taught, e.g., — 

8 18 28 

Z? JZ*? JZ? 

3 13 23 etc. 

The "addition" (Austrian) method of finding the 
difference is preferred by some. For example, in the 
example 9 — 4 = 5, the pupil will say, 4 and 5 are 9, 
placing 5 as the answer. 

This method of finding the difference, also called the 
"making-change" method, should be taught and used 
in all problems that involve transactions in which that 
method would be used in business. For example, if a 
purchase is made for $.75 and a $1 bill is given in pay- 
ment, the change is calculated by the trader, not by 
subtracting the $.75 from $1, but by adding to $.75 
enough to make $1, using such change as is most con- 
venient. He might say, "$.75 and $.25 is $1," passing 
to the purchaser a twenty-five-cent piece; or he might 
say, "$.75 and $.05 are $.80, and $.10 are $.90, and 



174 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

$.10 are $1," passing the purchaser a five-cent piece 
and two dimes. 

In multiplication pupils ought to learn very early in 
the grades that multiplying a number by 10 is the same 
as annexing a zero to the number; e.g., 10 x 1 = 10, 10 
x 10 = 100. After this is sufficiently illustrated, they 
may be led easily to adopt the method of annexing one 
zero when multiplying by 10, two zeros when multi- 
plying by 100, etc. When they have come to use the 
decimal point, they should be led to see that moving 
the decimal point in a number one place to the right 
multiplies the number by 10; moving it two places to 
the right multiplies the number by 100, etc. 

Afterward it will not be difficult for pupils to see the 
economy that often results from multiplying by 100 
and taking a third, when a number is to be multiplied 
by 33 J; multiplying by 100 and taking a fourth, when 
a number is to be multiplied by 25, etc., etc. 

If pupils are to be reasonable and intelligent in their 
mathematical study, they must understand the nature 
of the processes which they learn to perform. In addi- 
tion, they are putting together a number of like things. 
In subtraction, they are finding the difference between 
numbers of like things. In multiplying they are finding 
the result after taking one or more like things a certain 
number of times, the multiplier indicating "the num- 
ber of times." Mathematically, then, the multiplier 
must always be an abstract number, i.e., the number of 
times that the multiplicand is taken. It is evident that 



MATHEMATICS 



175 



the answer in a multiplication example must always be 
of the same kind as the multiplicand. 

From this it follows that, in problems in mensura- 
tion, statements like the following represent exten- 
sions of the concept of multiplication that are not only 
unnecessary, but also undesirable, in the elementary 
school: 6 ft. x 3 ft. = 18 sq. ft. Here there are two 
mathematical errors — first, the multiplier, 6 ft., is not 
abstract; second, the answer, 18 sq. ft., is not like the 
multiplicand. Pupils should be led to realize also that 
if they are to find the area (square measure) from data 
given in length, they must translate their data into 
square measure. For example, "Find the area of one 
side of a board 6 in. x 
3 in." 

6 x 1 sq. in. = 6 sq. in. 
3 x 6 sq. in, = 18 sq. in. 

After the pupils are 
familiar with the fact 
that, if they are to have 
square inches in the 
answer, they must start with a multiplicand in square 
inches and that the multiplier represents the number 
of times the multiplicand is to be taken (as addend), 
it will be possible to unite the two processes above 
into one; as, 3 x 6 sq. in. = 18 sq. in. 

Of course this principle in multiplication applies to 
all problems. It would be incorrect to state, 3 qt. x 2 
pt. = 6 pt., or 2 x 3 qt. =6 pt. Pupils should not only 



1 

sq.in. 





































Diagram showing graphically the applica- 
tion of multiplication to rinding areas. 



176 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

think but state that 1 quart contains 2 pints, 3 quarts 
then contains 3 times 2 pints; i.e., 3 x 2 pt. = 6 pt. 

This is all very simple for children even in the pri- 
mary grades, except possibly in problems in which the 
multiplier is the larger number. They have, however, 
learned (it may need to be taught again) that the 
answer is the same, so far as the numbers are con- 
cerned, whether one multiplies 2 by 13 or 13 by 2. 
Therefore, while it is always necessary to think and 
express (orally and in written form) a multiplication 
example in its proper order, the actual multiplication 
may be done abstractly in the most economical way. 

Division also has possibilities of economy in calcula- 
tion. Pupils should early learn to divide by 10, 100, 
etc., by crossing out or dropping one or more right- 
hand zeros, or by moving the decimal point to the left. 
If they wish to divide by 33 j, they should learn that it 
is often easier to divide the number by 100 and then 
multiply by 3, etc. These economical ways of calculat- 
ing should become the natural and easy ways both in 
oral and written work. 

There is an understandable relation between division 
and multiplication as there is between addition and 
subtraction, and multiplication drills may be given in 
division examples; e.g., 16-4-4 = 4, 4 x 4 = 16; 16 may 
be divided by 2, by 4, by 8, by 16; 16 = 4 x 4, or 2 x 8, 
or 1 x 16; the factors of 16 are 2 and 8, or 4 and 4, or 
2 and 2 and 2 and 2. 

In a long division example there are two traditional 



MATHEMATICS 177 

positions which the quotient may occupy. It may be 
placed at the right of the dividend; e.g.: — 

27)476(17 
27 
206 
189 

It may be placed over the dividend; e.g.: — 

17 

27)476 
27 
206 
189 

The proper location of the decimal point in a quo- 
tient may be fixed in the three following ways, illus- 
trated by the division of 72.50 by 3.14: — 



(a) 314.)7250. (b) 3.14)72.50 (c) 3.14)72.50 A 

In (a) both divisor and dividend are multiplied by 
100 in order to make the divisor a whole number. In 
(b) this multiplication is implied, and in (c) it is indi- 
cated by the insertion of a caret. 

It would seem to be wise to teach the method in 
which there is least liability to error. The method of 
placing the quotient above, and of fixing at once the 
quotient decimal point appears to give the best results. 
Whether the multiplication is actually done as in (a), 
or only implied or indicated as in (b) and (c), is not 
material. It is important, however, that the figures 
of the quotient be properly placed in relation to the 
figures of the dividend, the first of the quotient being 



178 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

exactly over the last figure of the group in the dividend 
that is used as a trial dividend; e.g.: — 

2 
3.14)72.50 

As an introduction to division of decimals pupils 
should be led to see, by proving it to be true in a num- 
ber of simple examples, that the divisor and dividend 
may be multiplied by any (the same) number without 
affecting the relation or quotient. Thus : — 

2)6 4)12 9 -J- 3 = 3: 18-1-6 = 3. 

~3 3 

There are two types of problems solved by the 
process of division that may be illustrated as follows : — 

Type 1. "A man sold land for $15.00 per acre, receiving 
$750.00 for it. How many acres did he sell?" 

Type 2. "A man sold 50 acres of land for $750.00. What 
was the price per acre?" 

Formerly it was the practice to think through the 
problem, determine the name of the answer, and per- 
form the division as if it were a pure abstract computa- 
tion. For instance, in Type 1 the problem calls for 
"acres." The problem evidently involves the division 
process. It may, therefore, be stated as follows : — 

50 
15)750 Answer — 50 acres. 

In Type 2 the problem calls for "price per acre." 
Having determined that this is to be the answer, the 
calculation may again be performed without reference 
to the names in the problem; as — 



MATHEMATICS 179 

15 



50)750 
50 
250 
350 Answer — $15 price per acre. 

This abstract way of performing problems is the 
business way. 

It is now, however, the common school practice 
to carry the logical thinking through the calculation 
process. Problems like Type 1 are performed thus: — 
50 times 





$15)$750 
75 


Answer 


— 50 acres. 


Problems like Type 2 are 


performed thus : — 


$15 








50)$750 
50 


Or tV of $750 


= $15. 


Answer — : 


250 








250 









It is readily seen that problems like Type 2 are logi- 
cally problems calling for the division of the dividend 
into parts. From this logical standpoint therefore this 
type of problem is called a "partition" problem, al- 
though so far as the mathematical division is concerned 
it is no different from the calculation involved in prob- 
lems of Type 1. 

It is very essential that teachers understand clearly 
the logical difference between these two types of prob- 
lems. It is essential that the children be trained in 
thinking through all problems to determine what kind 



180 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

of answer they are to have and how they are to arrive 
at the answer, but teachers should not confuse them 
by the term partition. 

Problems in denominate numbers, reducing from 
lower to higher denominations, fall under Type 1. 

But skill in computation consists not only in know- 
ing thoroughly how to add, subtract, multiply, and 
divide quickly and accurately, it implies also ability to 
take advantage of number relations so that the work 
may be done economically. Such economy is also 
productive of greater accuracy. This ability is gained 
only through training. 

This training begins in the fourth grade when pupils 
are shown how to see the sum in a group of numbers 
and to see the difference between numbers without 
calling each number by name. Other helpful relations 
have been referred to in the preceding pages, but they 
may be still further illustrated by the use of a simple 
problem. 

Problem — "A woman bought cloth at 12J^ per yard. 
How much will she pay for 20 yards?" 

Evidently 20 yards will cost 20 times 12^. At this 
point the pupil should be taught to pause, and deter- 
mine the best way to make the calculation. He has 
three possible ways of proceeding. He may multiply 
\%\i by 20 in the long way, but this will involve him in 
unnecessary "figuring" and some difficulty. He may 
think of 12|^ as $.125 and multiply that first by 10 



MATHEMATICS 181 

(moving the decimal point one place to the right, mak- 
ing $1.25) and then by 2. Or he may think of 12% ft as 
one-eighth of a dollar. Eight yards would then cost one 
dollar, and twenty yards would cost two and four- 
eighths or two and one-half times one dollar. 

By the time pupils reach the eighth grade they 
should have such familiarity with the various possible 
ways of reaching a given result, and such practice in 
judging the better way under different conditions that 
their mathematical sense will lead them to select the 
economical one in all their calculations. 

It should be emphasized that no encouragement is 
here given to train "lightning calculators." Such spe- 
cialized training as that term implies, has no place in 
school. The purpose is so to teach elementary arith- 
metic that the pupils may grow in power to understand 
and interpret the problems that belong properly to the 
elementary field of arithmetic, and that they may have 
such a command of number combinations and of num- 
ber relations that they may with accuracy, readiness, 
and economy of labor, perform the processes necessary 
for the solution of the common problems of everyday 
life and of ordinary business. 

To accomplish this result it is necessary to begin the 
training in the lower grades. The first methods taught 
will doubtless be the long ones, but these should be 
replaced by the shorter ones before they become fixed 
as habits of work. To habituate the mind to the pri- 
mary grade methods is to fix its thinking on a low plane, 



182 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

and this is no more desirable in mathematics than in 
reading, penmanship, or in any other subject. 

Pupils should, moreover, employ this kind of think- 
ing and use this kind of economy in written as well as 
in oral work. Thoughtful teachers of arithmetic are 
now encouraging pupils to do their written work with 
as few figures as possible, giving special credit for this 
kind of skill, and at times giving no credit for problems 
performed by needlessly long processes. 

Children in school rely too much on the pencil. 
What can be done mentally, should not be done with 
the pencil. In mental and oral exercises the pencil may 
often be used to record data and answers, but in writ- 
ten exercises the pencil should not take the place of the 
mind. 

The habit of "checking" work as it progresses must 
be formed if one is to become skillful in mathematics. 
This habit also should be started and fixed in the early 
grades. "Checking" consists in repeating one process 
mentally, before the next is begun. In adding, the 
calculation should be repeated in the reverse order. In 
subtracting, the remainder and subtrahend may be 
added. The repetition should be made after each oper- 
ation, rather than after the entire problem has been 
solved. This is the business custom. 

Skill in application 

But there is yet a third phase of this subject, mathe- 
matical skill. A pupil may be fairly capable in under- * 



MATHEMATICS 183 

standing or interpreting a book problem; he may be 
"good at figures," and yet he may be quite at sea 
when he is confronted by a real, concrete situation in 
which he must apply his mathematics. To put the 
matter more specifically, a child may know the table of 
long measure, and be able to "work" book problems, 
but be unable to find correctly the measurements of a 
board. A child may know the table of liquid measure, 
but be unable to determine the cost of a half -pint of 
cream from the price of one quart. 

In other words, there is a wide gulf between the 
mathematics of books and the mathematics of things. 
This gulf has been recognized in almost every other 
subject except mathematics, and in almost every field 
of education except the elementary field. In medical 
education there is the lecture and textbook, and hos- 
pital practice; in legal education there is the lecture 
and textbook, and moot courts (dramatized court pro- 
ceedings) ; in normal school education there is the lec- 
ture, textbook and conference, and practice teaching: 
in scientific education there is again the lecture and 
textbook, and the laboratory and shop experience. 
Elementary mathematics has its sole value in its appli- 
cations, and the various common applications must be 
taught in school along with the book, or pupils will 
continue to leave school mathematically unskilled 
because of their one-sided mathematical training. 

Unquestionably textbooks on elementary mathe- 
matics have been much improved in recent years. 



184 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

Material for problems, and many problems themselves, 
have been drawn from modern business life, and these 
give a much better preparation for actual application 
than do the material and problems of ancient business. 
But when this is conceded, it yet remains true that 
modern business terms and data are still remote, for- 
eign, and abstract to the child who has had no ac- 
quaintance with the business from which they happen 
to be drawn. Data drawn from modern factory and 
city life are as abstract to the farmer boy as are the 
data drawn from other centuries. For the city boy 
the mathematics of the farm is equally unreal. Book 
mathematics is concrete only in proportion as the 
mathematical foundations have been laid in concrete 
experience and as there is adequate opportunity for 
concrete, real application. 

Moreover, a teacher should feel free to omit prob- 
lems and topics from a textbook and to supplement it. 
The textbook may be expected to furnish a large part 
of the work required, but no book can supply the 
problems suited to the local conditions of all school 
districts. 

There are likely to be progressive changes in the 
teaching of this subject until in all grades, not simply 
in the kindergarten and primary grades, there are 
appropriate activities in which material for real, con- 
crete problems may be found. Some advance in this 
direction is noticeable. A larger use is being made of 
dramatized "occupations" and games in the lower 



MATHEMATICS 185 

grades. In the upper grades industrial or manual work 
of various kinds for boys and girls is being more closely 
studied for its mathematical content. A first-hand study 
of the life of the community by the pupils is reveal- 
ing real, concrete material for school mathematics. 

The following illustrate the kind of problems that 
pupils may formulate after such a study as is here re- 
ferred to. 

I have a picture 20 inches long and 15 inches wide that I 
wish to frame. The frame is to overlap the picture h inch. 
I have decided to use %\ inch stock, (a) Draw a diagram 
to illustrate the problem, (b) How much stock must I buy ? 
(c) How much will the stock cost at 5^ a foot? (d) How 
much will the glass cost? 

I have visited the dairy farm in my neighborhood. I find 
that 15 cows were milked every day in April. The cows pro- 
duced 360 pounds of milk per day. (a) How many pounds 
were produced in April? (b) Milk is paid for at the rate of 
25^ for each pound of butter fat it contains. This milk 
contains 3.5 per cent butter fat. How much money did 
the farmer receive in April? (c) What was the average in- 
come on each cow? 

If concrete mathematics cannot be found in a book, 

but only in real things, the book can be only a guide 

and a reference help. It is evident that a new attitude 

must be taken toward the textbook, for while it may 

contain suggestions as to methods and illustrate types 

of problems, the reservoir which holds the material for 

real mathematical problems is the life of the school 

and the life of the community; and this reservoir must 

be drawn upon by the children themselves in all grades. 

It is not enough that the teacher do this. The pupils 



186 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

must have the personal experience of gathering the 
data and seeing the mathematical situations in which 
the problems are found. 

Inductive Teaching 

In the foregoing discussion of the field and purpose of 
elementary mathematics consideration has been given 
incidentally to teaching and learning methods. There 
are several other matters not there referred to that 
deserve the teacher's thoughtful attention. Not the 
least important of these relates to the way in which a 
teacher takes up with the class a new subject. 

There are few teachers to-day who do not realize the 
educational necessity of building new knowledge on the 
old. But the cementing of the one to the other is not 
always skillfully done, and for this reason unexpected 
cracks sometimes develop in the structure. The proper 
use of the inductive teaching lesson by all teachers, 
beginning with the kindergarten, would result in 
better mathematical structures. 

In general the process of such a lesson is as follows : — 

1. Show the reason or give a motive for teaching the new 
fact or process. 

2. Begin with the fact, process, or situation that the pupils 
know. 

3. Have them use these known facts or processes in a 
variety of ways. 

4. Introduce the new fact or process in its simplest form. 

5. Have pupils apply the new principle in objective ways, 
if possible. 

6. Formulate a general statement. 

7. Make numerous applications in oral and written exercises. 



MATHEMATICS 187 

Independent work upon a new process should not be 
assigned until, by class exercises with the teacher, the 
new point has been made reasonably clear. 

Illustrations and objects should be used, but only in 
so far as they are needed to establish the foundations of 
thinking in experience and in real things. Their use 
beyond this will tend to confuse the pupil's mind 
and distract his attention from the real purpose of the 
lesson. 

A simple illustration of this kind of lesson may be 
taken from the first half of the third grade, when 
pupils are taught to add one-figure numbers to two- 
figure numbers. The teacher will first arouse the 
pupils' curiosity by remarking, perhaps, that he was 
obliged recently to add ninety-five cents and forty- 
eight cents, and he wondered if his pupils could do it. 
He puts this example on the board in some place where 
it can remain, with possibly the date, so that later the 
pupils can realize how long it took them to learn how to 
perform it. Then the teacher may say, "Let us begin 
with examples we know how to do," at the same time 
writing on the board a few simple examples in addition 
of one-figure numbers like the following: — 

S 3 3 3 3 3 3 

12 3 4 6 7 9 



Pupils are familiar with these and will give the sums, 
which the teacher will write down. The teacher is now 
sure that the class is well grounded up to this point. 



188 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS; 

Underneath these sums she may start a new series, 

beginning with 

13 
J. 

This sum is already known, and can be given orally 
before it is written. Pupils will be able quickly to com- 
plete the series, 

13 13 
2 3 



etc., up to 



13 

7 



when the first real difficulty may be met. Pupils know 

that thirteen and seven make twenty. They need to 

be shown how the sum of seven and three may be 

added first, the zero being put under them, and how 

the one ten is added to the ten of the thirteen. Proceed 

then to 

13 13 
_8 J) 

Now start another series, 

23 23 23 

J J? J? 

etc. This will doubtless be enough for one lesson. At 

the next lesson a quick review orally and in writing 

may be given of the first lesson, in which the teacher 

will discover where to begin her teaching — it may be 

with 

13 
8 



MATHEMATICS 189 

The class should be allowed to move along as rapidly 
as it can intelligently; for, having caught the idea, 
having glimpsed the new opening in the road, too much 
talk and explanation by the teacher may be confusing. 
Pupils who need additional instruction may receive it 
individually or in small groups. 

The lesson, or series of lessons, just illustrated, does 
not call for the use of objects. Where these are needed, 
as in the early stages of number development, in 
teaching denominate numbers, and addition, sub- 
traction, multiplication, and division of fractions, a 
longer time would be required for establishing the 
desired connection between the past varied uses of the 
old knowledge and the new. 

Mental and Oral Lessons 

Another exercise that deserves consideration is the 
mental and oral lesson. This has the same funda- 
mental educational value in arithmetic that it has in 
composition. It is the means by which what is super- 
ficially known becomes familiar. It is the economical 
way of discovering and strengthening weak places. If 
possible this should be a daily exercise. One third of 
the time of a recitation is not too much to assign to it. 
In five minutes five problems and abstract examples, 
two of one and three of the other, may be given and 
solved. A problem will be dictated once to the class; 
it will be solved mentally and the answer recorded on a 
slip of paper prepared in advance. This will be repeated 



190 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

for each of the five questions. Answer slips may be 
exchanged. The teacher reads the correct answers, or 
writes them on the blackboard, each pupil indicating 
wrong answers with a cross. Answer slips are returned 
and pupils making mistakes solve the problems orally. 
Problems not understood may be taken up for discus- 
sion in the latter part of the recitation, or the next 
mental arithmetic period may be given to the treat- 
ment of this one difficulty. 

In another kind of mental exercise each pupil indi- 
cates on a slip of paper the processes to be used in 
solving a series of dictated problems. For example, if 
the first problem is to be solved by multiplication, the 
pupil writes — 1. m. (multiplication). If the second 
requires division, he writes — 2. d. (division), etc. 
This exercise centers on process apart from calcula- 
tion. In five minutes ten to twelve problems may be 
thus treated. 

These problems, whether dictated by the teacher 
from her own supply or taken from the textbook, 
should, of course, be simpler in statement and in the 
required calculations than problems assigned for writ- 
ten work. They should be planned in advance to 
emphasize the points that need review and drill. They 
should be of two kinds — (a) abstract, leading to skill 
in calculation; (b) concrete, leading to skill in inter- 
pretation, and in using calculation in applied problems. 
These applied problems should often correlate with 
local interests, and with other school work. 



MATHEMATICS 191 

Diagrams and Graphs 

A third matter, and one that is often slighted in 
teaching mathematics, is the diagram. Beginning in 
the early grades, pupils should be taught how to illus- 
trate their problems in mensuration. From the first, 
they may understand that the diagram should repre- 
sent correctly the facts of the problem. If it does not 
so represent them, it is as bad a mistake as a wrong 
answer to the problem, and this is as true of sketch 
diagrams, i.e., those drawn without the ruler, as of 
drawings made to scale. If, for instance, the problem 
concerns a board four feet long and two feet wide, the 
diagram should not be a square, or a figure three times 
as long as it is wide. It should be twice as long as it is 
wide. Again, if a field is to be represented 20 rods long 
and 15 rods wide, the pupil should be led to see that 
the relation between the length and the width is the 
same as the relation between 4 and 3. The diagram, 
therefore, should show four units of length and three of 
width, each unit representing in this problem 5 rods. 

The graph is another geometric device for represent- 
ing mathematical facts. Its use is becoming very com- 
mon. In the daily newspapers, and in many magazines 
and books, comparisons of quantitative facts are shown 
by diagrams and by pictures of bales of cotton, barrels 
of flour, etc. In the elementary schools the pupils 
should be taught how to read them, and how to make 
them when this kind of representation would be of use 



192 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

in illustrating their work. Very early in the grades the 
daily temperatures may be recorded graphically. Some 
teachers have found it very stimulating to have each 
pupil keep his own daily or weekly record in spelling, 
or in some other subject, graphically. The class aver- 
ages in a study or in attendance may be kept graphi- 
cally on the board or bulletin. 

Mathematical Quality 

In all work in mathematics pupils should maintain 
high standards of quality. There are several kinds to 
be thought of, the first and most important of which is 
accuracy. Mathematics is an exact science, different 
in this particular from composition, history, geography, 
etc. There is no useful place anywhere in the world for 
seventy or eighty per cent correct mathematics. In 
school such a low standard may be acceptable in the 
process of learning, but when a subject is considered 
learned, ninety per cent and above should be expected. 
If a pupil cannot do the work assigned, in subjects 
which he is supposed to have mastered, on a ninety 
per cent correct basis, one of three causes may be 
found — either the work is not understood, or it is too 
difficult, or he is careless. Each of these causes should 
receive the teacher's careful thought; for if the work 
is well adapted to the pupils, they will be willing to 
strive for the high standards set by his ambition. 

Next in importance to accuracy is the quality of 
neatness, including good figures, pleasing arrangement 



MATHEMATICS 193 

of work, and clean papers. Lines should be parallel 
with the edges of the paper, and they should be drawn 
carefully and with precision, as a bookkeeper draws 
his lines. No unnecessary lines should be used. Black- 
board work should be as carefully and neatly done as 
work on paper. 

After accuracy and neatness comes speed. This, 
however, should never be obtained at the expense of 
the other two qualities. But it is evident that a pupil 
who hesitates, when he is asked the sum of eight and 
nine, either does not really know the sum, or he is 
embarrassed. Many exercises should be given in which 
pupils work in familiar fields to develop mathematical 
facility. 

Individuality of Pupils 

In aiming to secure good quality, however, the 
teacher will not allow the subject to take precedence 
in his mind over the pupils. A true teacher is never 
merely teaching a subject. He is always assisting a 
human being by means of a subject to grow and adapt 
himself to his surroundings. It is then, after all, the 
pupils' interest, success, growth, improvement that 
the teacher has in mind when he sets up high stand- 
ards and puts into operation stimulating incentives. 

If, however, these produce failure and discourage- 
ment in any individual, the standards and incentives 
are surely not accomplishing the most useful results. 
Individuals and classes differ in their mathematical 



194 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

aptitude. They come to a teacher with different kinds 
of preparation. If instruction is to be given from the 
standpoint of the pupils, it must first be discovered 
what each individual knows and also how he knows it. 
Therefore, standards should be adjusted to each class 
and to each individual. For the more able pupils spe- 
cial advanced problems should be assigned or offered 
as optional work for which special credit is given. For 
the less able, special easier work should be arranged to 
secure the needed review and drill. 

All defects cannot be made up at once, but they 
should be tabulated and definite plans should be made 
to remedy them. The more fundamental these defects, 
the more important it is to remove them. It may be 
that a pupil has reached the eighth grade without 
learning to make good figures or to make them in a 
proper way. The arrangement of work may be unbusi- 
nesslike. It may be that a pupil has not learned to 
illustrate his work with properly constructed diagrams, 
or he may not have learned to calculate economically. 
These and other individual and class defects should be 
sought out, especially at the beginning of each term, 
and thoughtful effort should be made to meet each 
difficulty. Moreover, the quantity of work planned 
should be measured by these same individual and class 
differences. 



MATHEMATICS 195 

Drill 

After a mathematical fact has been taught and pu- 
pils have shown that they understand it, they must 
use it again and again until they are its masters. For 
this purpose "drills" have been devised. Now in 
drilling a hole in a rock the workman does not hold 
the drill immovable. If he does, repeated hammering 
binds it, and the desired impression on the stone does 
not result. But he keeps turning the drill, so that at 
every stroke of the hammer the stone is affected in a 
slightly different spot. By thus constantly turning the 
drill, the hole is deepened. The teacher should know 
that the interest that he and his pupils take in the drill 
exercises, and their mental effect, depend upon this 
same variety of impact. The fact must be driven home 
by quick, sharp, and frequent blows, but it ought not 
to become "lodged" because of sameness or of monot- 
ony in the exercise. A large variety of devices is 
needed. 

Many games have been planned for use in the 
primary grades, that are good so long as the arithmetic 
is the prominent feature. The game should be the 
steam to make the arithmetic go. Charts with num- 
bers arranged in columns and lines, either upon the 
blackboard or on large sheets of paper, "flash" cards 
devised for drill in addition, subtraction, multiplica- 
tion, and division, aliquot parts and their per cent 
equivalents are also very useful in all grades. 



196 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

Moreover, to be effective, the purpose of a particular 
drill exercise must be determined before it is given, 
and with a view to the specific needs of a particular 
group of pupils. For instance, it may be that there is 
a class or individual weakness in interpreting problems. 
In this case, an abundance of practice should be given 
in each phase of interpretation, without any thought 
of the calculations. At one time pupils may determine 
only what is called for in a large number of problems. 
At another time they may state only what the problem 
gives as data to be used in working out the desired 
result. 

In drilling on "tables" and other elements of ab- 
stract computations, children should find the combina- 
tions that they need to drill upon, as contrasted with 
those on which they do not fail. Moreover, the stress 
of drill should be laid upon the difficult parts. For 
instance, a teacher is drilling a class in subtraction. 
It is found that some of the pupils have difficulty with 
the "borrowing" or taking from a higher place figure. 
An example similar to the one that follows may be 

used: — 

75084692 
34296893 

Let the pupil who has trouble with the "borrowing" 
do all the "borrowing" while another pupil does the 
subtracting. The first pupil says "12," the other, sub- 
tracting, says "9." The first one "18," the other "9." 
The first one "15," the other "7." By this division 



MATHEMATICS 197 

of labor in the exercise each pupil receives the drill 
that he particularly needs. 

The more the teacher can make use of the ingenuity 
of the pupils in planning these exercises, the more he 
can subordinate himself and make them the leaders, 
the more the exercises will appeal to them. They may 
select the points to be emphasized in the drill, they 
may suggest a new kind of game, they may do the 
pointing at the board, or hold the "flash" cards, or 
keep the record of failures and successes. 

Tests and Ratings 

Success in teaching any subject, and particularly 
arithmetic, depends partly upon the ability of the 
teacher to discover what the child's previous prepara- 
tion for a new topic has been and whether lessons that 
have been taught have been understood and retained. 
Every successful teacher is constantly testing, at times 
by means of written exercises, but more frequently by 
careful questioning, day by day, to find any existing 
weakness. This careful testing will enable the teacher 
to give individuals just the help that each needs, and 
to plan the work of the following day so that too many 
difficulties shall not be presented at one time. It will 
also prevent the equally harmful practice of making 
assignments which, being too easy, do not call for 
effort by the pupils. 

Failures in work should be carefully studied to dis- 
cover the particular point at which the failure occurred. 



198 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

The following incident will illustrate the necessity of 

doing this : — 

Problem: "Of a flock of sheep, 420 were sold. This was 
35% of the whole number. How many were left?" 

Nineteen pupils in a certain class failed on this 
problem. Of this number, twelve took 420 as the total 
number of sheep; seven said: "65% of the number 
sold = 420." 

It is evident that it would be a waste of time to 
assign additional problems of this type until there had 
been further instruction and a great deal of oral drill 
upon the interpretation of this type of problem, and 
upon the relation of the term "per cent" to the equiv- 
alent part of the whole which is involved in the prob- 
lem. The pupils who have failed at this point ought to 
be led to see that they have said that 65 per cent of all 
the sheep = 420 sheep, and that this statement con- 
tradicts the statement in the problem. 

This particular class consisted of thirty-five pupils. 
Only half failed on this problem and, therefore, only 
half needed additional help and drill. For the purpose 
of teaching this point, it would have been profitable 
to divide the class into two sections. While special 
instruction and drill were being given to one section, 
the other could be at work on more difficult problems. 

It is important that a variety of tests, oral and 
written, be given at the beginning of the term on all 
the essential processes previously studied, so that the 
teacher may begin the term's work intelligently. When 



MATHEMATICS 199 

a weakness has been discovered, the teacher should 
concentrate effort at this point, for a common cause of 
mathematical failure is the miscellaneous character 
of problems dealt with at one time. It happens not 
infrequently that a class does not dwell on problems 
relating to one situation long enough to learn the 
mathematics of that situation. 

Another kind of test, not intended for use in deter- 
mining promotion, has been successfully worked out 
in recent years. It is called "standard" or "standard- 
ized tests." Dr. S. A. Courtis, who devised them, 
states, "The Courtis Standard Tests are not 'examina- 
tions,' but scientific measures of fundamental abilities 
of arithmetic involved in simple work with whole num- 
bers. Their purpose is to show how efficiently the work 
of the entire school is conducted." They are proving 
to be very useful in revealing to teachers the funda- 
mental weaknesses of their pupils in arithmetic. 

Tests, especially of the more formal kind, should not 
call for the most difficult work that pupils might be 
expected to do, neither should they form the exclu- 
sive or most important consideration in determining 
standing or promotion. 

The mark given a test or a recitation or the work of 
a week, a month, or a term, should be considered not 
a rating indicating absolute value, nor should it be an 
end in itself, but rather an indication of mathematical 
proficiency or need. As it has been noted before, 
pupils should realize that in arithmetic accuracy is 



200 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

essential. Business cannot prosper on inaccurate 
arithmetic. Ninety per cent may therefore properly 
become the standard for daily work, although this 
may be too high as a requirement for promotion. 

Home Woek 

A word of caution regarding home work may not be 
out of place here. For the most part school tasks 
should be done in school. Five hours a day of mental 
work is enough for growing children. Little home work 
should be assigned before the seventh grade. Unwise 
parents may sometimes demand home lessons, and 
occasionally there is an over age or a plodding pupil 
who ought to have them; but in general school work 
will be better done and will be more profitable if it is 
done in school. Arithmetic is particularly ill adapted 
for home study. The help received at home often gives 
an unfair advantage, and in some instances cripples 
the pupil by being too generous. Occasionally the 
teacher at home may be superior to the teacher at 
school, but this cannot be assumed to be generally 
true, as the following incident indicates. One day a 
little girl took home her arithmetic lesson to learn. 
As usual, her mother helped her. The next day, on 
the child's return from school, her mother said, " Did 
you have a successful day at school, Dorothy ? " 

" Yes, mamma," was the reply. 

" Were the problems all right ? " continued the 
mother. 



MATHEMATICS 201 

"Oh, the problems," said Dorothy. "No, none of 
them were right, but don't feel badly, mamma, none 
of the other mothers had them right either." 
» If, then, home work in arithmetic is assigned at 
all, it should consist chiefly in performing the mechan- 
ical calculations involved after the "what to do" has 
been discussed in the classroom. When pupils are 
assigned home work that they do not understand, they 
will waste a great deal of time, and very likely develop 
habits of mental dawdling. 

Geometry 

All mensuration is geometry. As much geometry, 
therefore, should be taught in the elementary schools 
as is needed for the proper construction and reading of 
diagrams in mensuration and of working drawings in 
the shop. The working drawings are best made on 
the drawing board with the drawing tools that go with 
it. The proper use of these tools should be taught. 

It is probable that, in time, there will be an exten- 
sion of this work in the form of a course in geometrical 
construction of a useful nature adapted to the seventh 
and eighth grades. This course will doubtless include 
instruction in the use of the simple tools of the 
draughtsman, referred to above, — the drawing board, 
the T-square, the triangles, and the compass. No 
course has yet been planned that meets general accept- 
ance, although a promising beginning has been made 
in some textbooks. 



202 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

Algebra 

In schools that are large enough to have two eighth 
grade classes, it sometimes happens that pupils may 
be found strong in arithmetic, who would be profited 
by beginning the study of algebra. Such pupils may 
complete half a year of high school algebra during the 
eighth year and, at the same time, continue the study 
of arithmetic, giving it, however, less time thau the 
other class gives. But for most pupils, it is best to 
continue without interruption the study of arithmetic. 

All pupils should, however, become familiar with 
the use of letters as symbols of number and quantity, 
and should learn to solve problems by the equation 
method. In fact, the use of the algebraic equation in 
problems in percentage, including interest; in propor- 
tion, if this subject is taken; and in many other cases 
may well be given considerable emphasis, for it often 
simplifies the solution. 

In algebra, as in geometry, there is a probability 
that in the future there will be a somewhat more 
extended study than is here suggested. The practi- 
cal uses of the algebraic formula would seem to war- 
rant such development, particularly in some phases 
of general science and in boys' industrial studies and 
activities. Some advance has been made in formulat- 
ing a general course for the seventh and eighth 
grades, but it seems at present undesirable to do more 
than call attention to this movement. 



MATHEMATICS 203 

Regarding Courses of Study 
It was not the original purpose to include courses of 
study in this book. It is recognized that the best course 
of study for any locality is the one that is made by the 
teachers and supervisors of the schools for which the 
proposed course is to be a guide. But the course in 
arithmetic that follows has had wide approval and 
may be of use to some as a guide in making their local 
course. It is well, however, to be aware of the matters 
on which there is no general agreement. 

For instance, there are some who believe that formal 
instruction in arithmetic should be delayed as long as 
possible, until the third or fourth year of school. 
Others believe that this formal instruction should begin 
at once in the first year. There do not appear to be 
sufficient data to support or to discredit either opinion. 
The plan suggested here follows a middle course. It is 
believed that this plan is in accordance with the pre- 
vailing practice in this country. 

, There are those who prefer to place the objective 
work in the fundamental processes with fractions in 
the fourth year rather than in the fifth. While it is 
doubtless true that in general, in this country, this 
work is assigned to the fifth grade, the character of the 
particular class may properly determine this matter. 

The work outlined for the seventh and eighth grades 
is new for many schools. Not many textbooks at 
present treat adequately the practical applications of 



204 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

elementary mathematics, and textbooks at best can 
be but guides. All schools have not introduced the 
shop, farm, and domestic activities in such a way as to 
make them immediately available for the study of 
their mathematical content. Therefore, while making 
the transition from the study of less useful arithmetic 
to that of the more useful, applied and community 
arithmetic, it may not be feasible to discard at once 
the work with which teachers are familiar. However, 
progress will be rapid if supervisors and teachers be- 
lieve that the transition ought to be made and set 
themselves to the task of making it. 

There may be a feeling on the part of some that too 
much of the ordinary school arithmetic is here elimi- 
nated. The recognition of the principle of elimination 
— namely, that the schools should teach that arith- 
metic only that is useful outside of school — is much 
more important than the elimination or retention of 
any particular topic. If the principle is accepted, the 
practice in the schools will be governed more and more 
by it. 

Elementary Mathematics by Grades 
First grade ( first half ) 

The study of arithmetic during this year should be some- 
what informal, and the kind should be determined by the 
needs of the children. These cannot be set down definitely. 

Children who have not had the advantage of kindergarten 
training or of a favorable home environment, come to school 
at the age of five or six years with the knowledge of a few 



MATHEMATICS 205 

number names which they apply indefinitely to groups of 
things; but with a very limited consciousness or conception 
of the mathematical significance of these names. 

They may not be able to apply these names correctly. 
They may call a group of seven objects, five; a group of ten 
objects, seven, etc. 

They may use the term "four" when they mean the fourth 
one; "five" when they mean the fifth one, etc. 

Without special lessons these actual mathematical defi- 
ciencies may be made good. The seat work, reading lesson, 
and the general life of the school will provide the opportuni- 
ties for the instruction that is needed. 

First grade {second half) 

The instruction of the first half year should be continued 
and carried to 

1. Counting by twos and tens to 100. 

2. Reading numbers through 100. 

3. Making figures through 10. 

4. Using one-half, one-third, one-fourth, as they may need 
these terms in connection with their various kinds of 
class and seat work. 

No regular period need be set aside for instruction; but an 
occasional period should be given to it, if the results indi- 
cated cannot be secured otherwise. 



Second grade {first half) 

Pupils may be given a textbook at this time, or it may be 
withheld for another half-year or even until the beginning 
of the third grade, according to the judgment of those in 
authority. The teacher should have two or three good 
primary arithmetics for her own use. 

Whether the pupils have books or do not have them, the 
spirit and method of instruction will be the same. Instruc- 
tion should be more systematic than in the first grade and a 
special period should be set aside for it. 

The principal work of the half-year is the teaching of the 



206 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

twenty-five primary number facts of addition whose sum 
does not exceed ten. These twenty-five sums should be 
taught by counting various kinds of objects and by the use 
of diagrams (dots, lines, figures, pictures, etc., on the black- 
board) . 

Objects are used so that the children may find for them- 
selves the sums and may see the results that come from com- 
bining the groups of 2 and 3, 4 and 3, etc. 

There should be some variety in the objects to maintain 
interest and to avoid associating the number ideas exclu- 
sively with one set of objects, but the variety should not be 
so great as to cause mental confusion. 

After the objects have fulfilled their purpose, which is to 
make clear a fact or a process, their use should be discon- 
tinued. It is not always easy to determine when to do this, 
as it is as much an individual as a class matter. If a pupil 
can readily and accurately arrange objects, as 5 blocks and 
3 blocks, and by counting determine the sum, he is ready, 
turning his back upon the blocks, to make the oral statement, 
5 and 3 are 8; to make the statement with figures, 5 + 3 = 8; 
to read these numbers and to memorize the combination. 

While learning that 5 blocks and 3 blocks are 8 blocks, it is 
a simple matter to learn that 3 blocks and 5 blocks are 8 
blocks, that 8 blocks less 5 blocks are 3 blocks, and that 
8 blocks less 3 blocks are 5 blocks. 

After several combinations have been learned, it remains 
to fix them in mind. This can be done best not by returning 
constantly to objects, or by mere repetition, but by using 
the combinations in ways interesting to the children. Much 
thought has been given to devising occupations and games 
in which the number relations may be expressed repeatedly. 
Sight work must precede pure mental work in all drills. 

Pupils may "play store" in a variety of ways. It is not 
necessary to have money or imitation money. Children use 
toothpicks, pebbles, nails, etc., for money in their play out 
of school. They can use the same things for money in school. 
Often in play out of school one marble is made equivalent 
to the value of two, three, five, or more marbles. This same 
kind of imagination may be utilized in school. 



MATHEMATICS 207 

* 5 Playing dominoes" is an interesting game. Children 
may make their own dominoes for use at their seats. The 
teacher may have a similar set of large cardboard dominoes 
for class use. Of course the number of dots on the dominoes 
should be governed by the numbers which the teacher wishes 
to emphasize. 

"Playing soldiers" can be used in a variety of ways. This 
game and others of a similar nature give opportunities for 
action. They should be played in a lively manner. "Play- 
ing housekeeper," also, has many possibilities for number 
experience, 

"Spinning the arrow" is played with a large circle of card- 
board. Different numbers are placed at regular intervals 
around the circumference. An arrow is fastened loosely in 
the center. Each child spins the arrow and announces the 
number to which it points and adds or subtracts a given 
number. Such drills should not take the place of those with 
figures written in columns. 

These games and dramatized occupations may be of real 
value if the play does not crowd out the mathematics. The 
play factor should be kept simple and subordinate and 
should involve a relatively large amount of serious mathe- 
matical drill. It is questionable whether a teacher is justi- 
fied in infusing into the recreation period an element of arith- 
metic or of any other study. The recreation periods should 
be periods of mental relaxation. 

Beyond the making of figures and pictures of objects, no 
written work should be required. 

In addition to learning the twenty-five primary combina- 
tions mentioned above, the following subjects should be 
given careful attention: — 

1. Reading numbers and counting by twos, fives, and tens 
to 100 beginning with zero. 

2. Writing figures and spelling the names of numbers 
through 20. 

3. Roman numerals as they are met with in books. 

4. Halves and thirds of numbers, giving exact divisions 
through products that are learned. 

5. Measures used: inch and foot. Use the ruler and teach 



208 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

the parts as used. It is desirable to have the pupils in 
this grade use a ruler divided into inches, halves and 
quarters only. 
6. Dozen and half-dozen. 

Second grade (second half) 

If the children have come from another teacher, or a sum- 
mer vacation has intervened, time should be taken to review 
the work of the previous grades before beginning the new 
work. 

What has been noted regarding use of objects, games, and 
dramatized occupations applies to this grade also. 

There are forty-five so-called primary number facts of 
addition, that is, forty-five different groups of two numbers 
each whose sum is 18 or less. Twenty-five of these primary 
addition facts, those representing sums less than 10, were 
learned in the first half of this grade. It is believed that the 
addition facts between 10 and 18 are better learned by calcu- 
lation than by objects. Pupils should be led to see that 13 is 
3 and 10, that 14 is 4 and 10, etc.; 11 and 12 need to be 
learned by themselves. Realizing that 9 is one less than 10, 
pupils will readily see that 9 and 4 must be one less than 10 
and 4; that 9 and 5 is one less than 10 and 5, etc. Numbers 
beyond 10 or 12 require too many objects for easy manipu- 
lation, and the groups of objects are too large for mental 
imaging. 

Pupils in this grade should begin to recognize groups of 
numbers as wholes, as they recognize groups of letters (words) 
as wholes. 

Expressions like 

2 4 7 
12 3 etc., 

should be thought at once as equaling 3, 6, and 10, rather 
than as 2 and 1 are 3, etc. 

The best test of a pupil's knowledge of his addition and 
subtraction facts is ability to see these facts without conscious 
calculation, just as words are recognized without conscious 
spelling. 



MATHEMATICS 209 

Much waste of effort will be avoided in teaching the forty- 
five primary addition facts if they are separated into groups 
according to their difficulty. It should be made evident to 
the children that all combinations of 1 and some other num- 
ber are so easy that they need no attention. It is a profitable 
exercise for the pupils to decide for themselves which are 
these "difficult" groups. Those that are troublesome should 
receive attention until they are as familiar as the "easy" 
groups. 

Drill by the use of games, dramatized occupations, vari- 
ous kinds of mechanical devices, such as diagrams, "flash 
cards," etc., etc., where the figures are written in column 
form. 

The following subjects also should receive attention: — 

1. Adding and subtracting by tens and fives to 100, be- 
ginning with zero. 

%. Reading, writing, and spelling names of numbers 
through 100. 

3. Roman numerals as they are met with in books and in 
learning to tell the time of day. 

4. Addition of single columns of two to four one-figure 
numbers. 

5. Multiplication and division tables of 2, and, if the class 
is able, the table of 3. 

6. Halves, thirds, fourths of numbers through 20, and of 
single objects. 

7. The units of measures, one inch, one square inch, pint. 
4 Use also foot, yard, square foot, and quart. 

8. Coins up to one dollar. 

The pupils should be given much experience in using real 
measures. They should begin also to exercise their judgment 
in estimating lengths and surfaces. The ruler divided into 
inches, half inches, and quarter inches is desirable for this 
grade. 

Third grade (first half) 

Pupils should have a textbook. 

Review thoroughly the forty-five primary addition facts, 
giving special drill upon those that are troublesome. All 



210 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

these facts should be known instantly, with the correspond- 
ing differences; the multiplication and division tables of 2 
and 3 ; the exact halves and thirds of products learned. Give 
much sight drill. 

More written work may be given in this review than was 
desirable in the second grade, although the greater emphasis 
should still be on the oral form of expression. 

The new work of this half-year is : — 

1. Adding one-figure numbers to two-figure numbers 
orally and in written form. Subtraction examples with 
the same kind of numbers and taught in connection 
with addition. Add one-figure numbers in columns of 
two, three, and four numbers. Add numbers arranged 
in horizontal lines. Pupils should use readily the terms, 
sum, difference, and remainder. Addition and sub- 
traction by "endings," e.g., 3 + 2 = 5; 13 + 2 = 15; 
6-3 = 3; 16 -3= 13, etc. 

2. Multiplication tables to 4 X 10. 

3. Division tables to 40 -J- 4. 

4. Multiplication and division by one-figure numbers. 

5. Reading and writing numbers through 1,000. Roman 
numerals through XX. Dollars and cents. 

6. Halves, thirds, and fourths of single objects and of 
numbers which allow of exact division to 40. 

7. Use the measures of previous grades. 

8. Introduce simple one^step problems, keeping them as 
near as possible to the children's experience. 

The use of the ruler should be carefully taught so that it 
may be used skillfully, like any other tool, in drawing and 
cardboard construction work. Pupils may begin drawing to 
scale. 

Time tests for speed and accuracy should be given, but 
with care so as not to discourage the slower members of the 
class. 

Third grade {second half) 

Two or three weeks may be spent profitably in a careful 
review of the work of the previous half-year. In this review 
emphasize addition and subtraction by "endings," e.g., 



MATHEMATICS 211 

9 + 2 = 11; 19 + 2 = 21; 29 + 2 = 31, etc. During the 
review make a memorandum of the troublesome places and 
devise interesting exercises for drill. Oral expression should 
have more attention than written expression. 
The new work of this half-year is: — 
1. Addition of one-figure numbers and one-figure and 
two-figure numbers at sight. Subtraction examples 
with the same kind of numbers. Add columns of one- 
figure numbers consisting of two, three, four, five, and 
six numbers. Lead pupils to see the sum of four num- 
ber columns at a glance without laborious addition. 



2 

This sum may be seen as 13. It is not necessary to 
add one number at a time. If any pupil has difficulty 
in seeing the 13 at a glance, he may at least see two 
groups — the sum of one group being 10 and of the 
other 3. Have some addition in horizontal lines. Addi- 
tion and subtraction of United States money orally and 
in written form. 

2. Tables of multiplication and division to 9 X 10 and 
90 -T- 9. 

3. Multiplication and division by one-figure numbers. 
Avoid examples in division involving remainders. 

4. Halves, thirds, etc., to ninths of all numbers involved 
in the tables which will be divisible without a remain- 
der. 

5. Reading and writing numbers to 10,000. Roman nu- 
merals to L. 

6. Use the measures, pints, quarts, gallons; quarts, pecks, 
bushels; ounces, pounds; inches, feet, yards; square 
inches, square feet, square yards; dozen, one-half 
dozen, one-third and one-fourth of a dozen. Teach 
also the table of minutes, hours, days, months, and 
years. 

Study the relations of the parts of each table one to 



212 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

another; give much practice in' "estimating" lengths, 
areas, volumes, and weights, so that all terms in the 
tables may have a definite meaning. 

7. Simple one-step problems of a practical sort. 

8. Train pupils to a skillful use of the ruler in all work in 
which it is used. Continue simple drawing to scale. 

Use games and dramatized occupations in drills and re- 
views. Give occasional time tests for accuracy and speed. 
These tests are for inspiration and should not result in dis- 
couragement to faithful pupils who may be a little slow. 

Fourth grade {first half) 

This grade has little work that can be called new. The 
pupils are led farther along lines on which they have already 
traveled. They will meet difficulties, but they will be diffi- 
culties involved in using larger numbers, in calculations, and 
in application. 

It is most important that the fourth-grade teacher be 
familiar with the work that the teachers in previous grades 
have been trying to do — the quantity, the variety, and 
the method. It should be recognized that pupils have not 
learned all that teachers have tried to teach. Many points 
will need to be taught again and time should be taken to 
do it. 

1. In addition much drill should be given to adding "by 
endings." The difficulties in addition are largely be- 
cause a few simple combinations, such as 9 + 7, 8 + 5, 
8 + 7, 7 + 4, 5 + 2, 5 + 3, 8 + 3 are troublesome. The 
stress of drill should be placed upon these and other 
points of difficulty. However, the teacher must call out 
the active, interested effort of the pupils, if the drill is 
to make an impression. Pupils should become skillful in 
recognizing at sight sums of groups of two and three 
figures. 

The addition may be extended to numbers of three 
and four figures each and to six and eight numbers in 
a column. 

Have some work in horizontal addition. 



MATHEMATICS 213 

Have pupils fix the habit of checking their addition 
by adding a second time in the reverse order. 

2. In subtraction the work should parallel that in addi- 
tion. Familiarize the pupils with the business way of 
making change, i.e., by adding to the price of the article 
what is needed to complete the amount of money 
passed to the dealer in payment. 

3. In multiplication and division extend previous work to 
the use of multipliers and divisors of two figures. 
Tables through 12 X 12 and 144 -- 12. 

Pupils should use readily the terms multiplier, 
multiplicand, product, dividend, divisor, quotient. 

4. Reading and writing numbers to 1,000,000. Roman 
numerals to C. 

5. Complete the tables of long and square measure by 
teaching rods and miles. Make sure that pupils have a 
definite idea of the value of each denomination in the 
various tables and fix these ideas of values by frequent 
reviews and drills in which they are used concretely. 
Use the blackboard, the schoolroom floor, the school 
yard to illustrate distances and areas. Train pupils to 
"pace" yards and rods. Have them determine the dis- 
tance of a mile from the school to some well-known 
point as a "standard mile." This should be done by 
actual measurements, using a pedometer, a bicycle 
with an odometer, or an automobile. 

The repetition of tables is of little use, if there is 
* not this consciousness of concrete values. 

6. One-step problems and with some classes simple two- 
step problems. Train pupils to think through problems 
and to estimate answers before they begin the written 
solution. Pupils should at times be asked to make 
problems for the class, using problem material found in 
the home or school life. 

7. In fractions continue the work of previous grades. 

8. Continue the use of the ruler and drawing to scale. 
Drills and reviews by the use of games and dramatized 

occupations are desirable in this grade. Keep these simple 
and have the mathematics prominent. The pupils will sug- 



214 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

gest new games if they are taken into the confidence of the 
teacher. A pupil may find it interesting to engage in compe- 
tition with himself, as a person often does in playing golf or 
other games. Each may keep his own score card. 

Fourth grade {second half) 

The work outlined for the first half of this grade should be 
continued by varied and interesting reviews and drills, and 
it should be extended as follows : — 

1. Addition and subtraction as previously outlined. 

2. Multiplication and division by two-figure numbers, 
carried this year to three-figure numbers. 

3. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division 
with United States money. 

4. The simple use of fractions, as \, \, £, £, \, when 
considered as parts of a unit, or of numbers which are 
divisible without a remainder. 

5. The use of the various tables of measure in length, area, 
volume, bulk, time, weight, founded on a large body of 
practical, concrete experience with these measures. 

6. Reading and writing numbers to 1,000,000. 

It is reasonable to expect that at the end of the fourth 
grade pupils will be fairly accurate and skillful in calcula- 
tion within the limits of their grade assignment, and that 
they will show signs of careful training in the interpretation 
and solution of simple problems. 

Fifth grade {first half) 

The fifth-grade teacher should study carefully the work of 
the preceding grades, and he may profitably spend two 
weeks at the beginning of the term in reviewing the fourth- 
grade work, re- teaching those parts upon which the pupils are 
not clear and devising new drills for those parts that need 
emphasis. It will be found that long division usually requires 
a good deal of attention before pupils are skillful in it. The 
review may continue while the new work in fractions is being 
introduced. 



MATHEMATICS 215 

The new work of the fifth grade is the teaching of addi- 
tion, subtraction, multiplication, and division of fractions — 
common and decimal. This should be divided about equally 
between the two halves of the year. The first half of the 
year common fractions should be taught (addition and sub- 
traction thoroughly, multiplication and division less thor- 
oughly). 

Pupils have had much experience with simple fractions, 
\, 3> \, etc., of single objects, and the equal parts of small 
numbers. They can add \ and \, \ and \, etc., and 
doubtless will have no trouble with a problem requiring that 
\ be taken from f or from § . They have had, however, 
no experience in adding \ and \, or, in general, in calculat- 
ing with fractions not having a common denominator. 

1. Teach reduction of fractions to higher and lower terms. 

2. Addition and subtraction of fractions should be taught 
as addition and subtraction of integers were taught in 
the second grade — objectively. Paper cutting, dia- 
grams of circles, rectangles, and lines should precede 
the use of figures, and these should be used to illustrate 
the first problems in which figures are used. Have much 
oral work. 

The use of objects and diagrams should be with small 
fractions, and objective teaching should not be con- 
tinued after its purpose has been realized, that is, after 
pupils see the validity of the operations. 

3. The terms, numerator, denominator, common denom- 
* inator, and least common denominator should be 

taught. As only those fractions with small denomi- 
nators (not larger than 16) will be used, all common 
denominators can be found by inspection. Teach also 
reduction of improper fractions to mixed numbers, of 
mixed numbers to improper fractions, and the addi- 
tion and subtraction of mixed numbers. 

4. Teach multiplication of fractions and the use of the 
"of" when the multiplier is a fraction. 

5. Division of fractions. 

6. Reading and writing numerals through 100,000,000. 
Reading and writing common and decimal fractions 



216 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

(through three places) and mixed numbers. In reading 
mixed numbers use and only between the whole number 
and the fraction. Read and write Roman numerals 
through C, also the numerals D and M. 

7. Continue drill in addition by "endings" and by groups 
of numbers. Have pupils find and learn the equal 
(aliquot) parts of $1.00 and of 100, and apply these in 
the solution of problems. Continue practice in the 
interpretation of problems, in estimating results and in 
the application of short methods in solving problems. 
Pupils in this grade should appreciate the importance 
of relations of numbers. They should habitually look for 
these relations and utilize them in calculations. For 
example, in the following problem: — "If 5 lb. of but- 
ter costs $1.50 how much will 15 lb. cost?" — pupils 
should see that 15 is 3 times 5 and therefore that 15 lb. 
will cost 3 times $1.50. They should also realize that 
the easiest way to multiply $1.50 by 3 is to multiply 
$1.00 by 3, adding $.50 multiplied by 3. 

8. Problems in denominate numbers. Two-step problems. 

9. Measuring and drawing to scale. 

Fifth grade (second half) 

Review addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division 
of common fractions. Have much practice with mixed 
numbers. 

Continue reviews of all subjects taught in previous grades 
with special attention to training for skill in interpretation 
of problems, in estimating results, and in calculation. 

The work of this year will be much simplified if numbers 
are kept small and problems are kept simple. Emphasis 
should be placed on familiarizing pupils with the proc- 
esses. 

1. Teach cancellation. This should be treated as a case of 
reduction of fractions to lower terms. This reduction 
is not a process of dividing numerator by denominator 
or denominator by numerator, but is the process of di- 
viding both numerator and denominator by a common 



MATHEMATICS 217 

divisor. Thus § is reduced by dividing 4 and 8 by the 
common divisor 4, with the result ^. 

2. Instruction in decimals should be introduced by illus- 
trations with United States money. Teach addition, 
subtraction, multiplication, and division of decimal frac- 
tions, using decimals to three places. In reading mixed 
numbers use the word and only at the decimal point. 
Keep the work simple. In multiplication limit it to 
examples that have the decimal point in the multiplier 
only, and in division to examples having the decimal 
point in the dividend only. 

3. Change common fractions to decimal form. At this 
point, if it has not been done before, teach that: — 

(1) A fraction is an expression of a part — (a part of 
a unit, e.g., J of an orange; or of a group of units, 
J of 16 oranges.) 

(2) A fraction is an expression of division in which the 
line separating numerator from denominator is the 
sign of division. Therefore, the numerator may be 
divided by the denominator and an improper frac- 
tion may be reduced to a whole or a mixed number; 
and a common fraction may be changed to the 
decimal form. (From this point of view a fraction 
is the ratio of two magnitudes of the same kind.) 

4. Problems relating to the common affairs of life, market- 
ing, traveling, etc., should be made by the pupils. 

5. Drawing to scale. 

Sixth grade (first half) 

Teachers of this grade should not expect pupils at the be- 
ginning of the term to be proficient in the work of the pre- 
ceding grade. Two or three weeks, or even a longer time, 
should be spent in a careful and systematic review of the 
work in fractions. The sixth-grade teacher should be familiar 
with the work of the fifth-grade teacher. 

During this review much practice should be given in inter- 
pretation of problems, in estimating results, in becoming 
skillful in economical calculations, in choosing short methods 



218 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

of solving problems by taking advantage of number rela- 
tions, using the equal (aliquot) parts of $1.00 or 100, etc. 
Continue drawing to scale. 

1. In decimals teach multiplication and division with 
numbers having the decimal point in both terms of the 
example, using also the more troublesome numbers, 
such as those with one or more zeros, etc. 

2. Change common fractions to decimals and decimals to 
common fractions. 

3. Teach the reading of decimals to six places, but for 
common use employ only those of three places or less. 

4. The new work of this half-year should consist of simple 
applications of decimal and common fractions in per- 
centage. The sign % will be introduced. 

Pupils should realize that they are not doing any- 
thing new when they multiply a number by .04 or t^tt* 
This work should be related to the former work in com- 
mon and decimal fractions. The notation (i.e., the 
names) is the only new thing in percentage. 

5. The pupils should have considerable practice in taking 
measurements of lengths, surfaces, and solids, and they 
should learn how to use these measurements in making 
problems in mensuration. 

The pupils may bring to school bills that have been used 
in business transactions. The discussion of these with the 
class will show the advantage of the conventional forms of 
ruling, heading, receipting, etc. The pupils should be asked 
to make out bills first on blank forms, if they can be obtained, 
afterwards on paper which they themselves have ruled. Let 
their imagination be used to make these business transac- 
tions represent actual transactions as far as possible. Let it 
be imagined that the teacher, or one of the class, has sold to 
the others a bill of goods or has done a piece of work for them 
or rented a house to them. The bill should contain the real 
names of the parties in the transaction. The pupils should 
learn how to receipt a bill properly and also how to give a 
receipt in such a transaction as the settlement of an account, 
the receiving of wages, the making of a part payment. 



MATHEMATICS 219 

Sixth grade (second half) 

The purpose of the review in this grade is to secure a 
firm foundation for future mathematical advance by making 
pupils sure and skillful in the use of the essential processes 
previously studied. 

At the outset teachers should assure themselves of the 
ability of pupils to add and subtract, multiply and divide 
accurately. All cases of "arrested development" — such as 
counting while adding, adding instead of using the multipli- 
cation combinations, and writing down numbers to be added 
to the next higher order in multiplication — should be ear- 
nestly sought out and corrected. The teacher, particularly of 
this grade, should feel that unless this fundamental work is 
thoroughly accomplished his work in arithmetic is, to a con- 
siderable extent, a failure. 

Sufficient drill should be given to enable pupils to reduce 
denominate numbers to higher or lower denominations, and 
to give them proficiency in changing fractions to other frac- 
tional forms ; common and decimal fractions to higher or lower 
forms; improper fractions to mixed numbers, etc. 

Much practice, oral as well as written, should be given this 
half-year in common and decimal fractions. 

The new work of this half-year may be outlined under 
five heads: 

1. Extend the use of per cent in simple problems. The 
terms base, rate, and percentage are seldom, if ever, used 

4 outside the schoolroom. Therefore they should not be 

used in the schoolroom. The terms per cent, interest, 

or rate of interest, commission, etc., should be used. 

Only two kinds of problems involving per cents 

require attention : — 

(a) Those in which the part is to be found when the per 

cent is given; e.g., "Find 35 per cent of 600." 
(6) Those in which the per cent is to be found when the 
part is given; e.g., "200 is what part of 800?" 

2. Problems in simple commercial discount and in interest 
for integral per cents involving years and months only. 

Teach the simplest form of computing interest, i.e., 



220 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

find the interest for one year and multiply by the 
number of years. 

3. Have pupils learn the per cent equivalents for \, \, 
I, h h i t^o, ^h, h I, i f , h f(J- These per cent 
equivalents should become so familiar that when the 
per cent form is thought, the common fraction form 
is thought simultaneously and vice versa, and the 
two should be used interchangeably in oral and written 
work. 

4. In measurements, review and extend the work with the 
rectangle, square, triangle, cube, distinguishing them 
one from another. The problems in mensuration should 
be practical, pupils being required frequently to make 
their own measurements in order to obtain the condi- 
tions of the problems they are to solve. 

Illustration: "Find the dimensions of your school- 
room." "What is the total area of the walls and ceil- 
ing?" "How much window surface?" "How much 
blackboard surface?" "Determine the cost of sodding 
the school yard and of inclosing it with a fence." 

One good way of treating this topic is to work out 
problems relating to building and furnishing a house. 
Data for such problems may be secured from local con- 
tractors and supply houses, and it will be profitable for 
pupils to visit buildings that are in process of construc- 
tion. 
5. In order to train pupils to keep simple accounts — 
something that every one should be able to do — there 
should be at least one exercise a week in which the chil- 
dren make a record of their income and expenses. This 
exercise need not take an entire period. Except when 
class instruction is needed, the records may be made 
before school, or in a study period. 
The accounts should be of actual moneys belonging to the 
pupils, if that is possible. It is better to have a few real items, 
than to have many that represent imaginary transactions. 
The accounts should state briefly, but adequately, the 
sources and dispositions of income: for example, not, "Rec. 
from Aunt Mary," — but, "Gift from Aunt Mary"; not, 



■MATHEMATICS 221 

"Paid out" — but, "Paid for Candy"; not, "Earned" — 
but, "Shoveling Snow," etc. The headings at the top of the 
pages should be uniform through the book — as, "Received 
— Paid"; or, "Income — Outgo"; or, " Receipts — Pay- 
ments." Balances should be computed at the close of each 
month, and should be brought down properly with red lines, 
if possible, and carried forward to the next month's account. 
Each month should begin on two pages, with proper state- 
ments of amounts brought forward from previous month. 
There should be a uniform use of capitals and punctuation. 
Pupils may keep memorandum slips, but entries in the ac- 
count books should be made at school with ink, and accounts 
should not be copied. During vacations transactions may be 
recorded in memorandum form and entered in the books in 
school after vacation. 

Sample page of Account Book 

1915 Receipts 1915 Payments 

Mar. 1 On hand $1.18 

" 6 From father. . . .25 

" 14 Errand 10 

" 20 Paper route. . . .75 
" 29 Errand .15 



$2.43 



Mar. 2 Papers $ .25 

3 Car fare 10 

4 Pencil 05 

31 On hand . . 2.03 



$2.43 



Let pupils bring to school bills that have been used in 
business transactions. This work is review, and pupils should 
become proficient in making and receipting such forms of 
bills as are used in common business. 

Note on the work of the Seventh and Eighth Grades 

During the preceding six years pupils have studied all 
the mathematics that is used in the common business of the 
world. But their mathematical experience has been very 
limited. The duty of teachers in the seventh and eighth 
grades, therefore, so far as mathematics is concerned, is to 
widen and deepen this experience, remembering, however, 
that the pupils are immature, and that the training should 
still be confined to the field of common business. 



222 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

There are three parallel lines along which advance is to be 
made. (1) Pupils should increase their skill in interpreting 
problems, and in calculating with relatively small numbers, 
by constant practice. (2) They should have varied personal 
experience in the actual application of mathematics in their 
school and home industrial activities. (3) They should be- 
come aware of the uses of mathematics in the various activi- 
ties of the life of the world by studying these activities first 
hand, gathering real data and problems, and formulating 
similar problems where it is possible; and where that is not 
possible, studying and using the data given in books. 

Along this third line there will be opportunities for obtain- 
ing industrial and civic information that will have a general 
cultural value and may possibly be of individual industrial 
value. 

The course of study here suggested for these grades is 
designed to accomplish these results. 

Seventh Grade 
Outline 

Accuracy and skill in computation with whole numbers, common 
and decimal fractions. 

Facility in interpreting simple problems. 

Estimating results in all problems, including those in mensuration. 

Skill in actual measurements. 

Drawing to scale and sketching diagrams. 

Use of graphs in practical ways. 

Problems related to earning money. 

Problems of the school shop, sewing-room, kitchen, school and home 
gardens, and other school and related home activities. 

Problems in denominate numbers based on actual measurements, 
using all the common tables. 

Problems in percentage relating to retail business, and in simple 
interest. 

Problems relating to local, state, and national business — agricul- 
ture, manufacturing, trade, and transportation. 



MATHEMATICS 223 

Eighth Grade 
Outline 

Accuracy and skill in computation with whole numbers, common 
and decimal fractions. 

Facility in interpreting simple problems. 

Estimating results in all problems, including those in mensuration. 

Skill in actual measurements. 

Drawing to scale and sketching diagrams. 

Use of graphs in practical ways. 

Common business forms. 

Skill in making bills and receipts relating to actual transactions. 

Discussions and problems relating to the business of home-making, 
including purchase of house, renting, taxes, up-keep, insurance, 
and furnishing; family expenses for a week, a month, a year. 

Discussions and problems relating to inventories of home and busi- 
ness properties. 

Personal investigations, class discussions, and problems relating to 
earning, saving, investing, and sending money. 

Problems in simple interest. 

Discussions and problems relating to town or city, county, state, 
national income and expenditure; taxes and bonds. 

Discussions and problems relating to public service corporations. 

Problems relating to such general science experiments as may be 
made. 

Excursions to various local industrial establishments. Class discus- 
sions and problems relating to these industries. 

Metric system (for.information). 

Geometry as applied in the shop, in diagrams, and in practical prob- 
lems found in the various industries studied. 

Algebra in so far as it is involved in the representation of quantity 
by letters and in the solution of problems by the equation method. 

COLLATERAL READING 

The Teaching of Arithmetic. David E. Smith. 

The best brief general treatment of the subject. It is clear and concrete 
and discusses from the modern standpoint the different phases of theory 
and practice with which the elementary school teacher should be familiar. 
The Teaching of Primary Arithmetic. Henry Suzzallo. 

A statement of the results of an investigation made for the International 
Commission on the Teaching of Mathematics. It covers the work of the 
first six grades. 



CHAPTER IV 

GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 

These subjects are really three phases of one, 
namely, human life. A moment's consideration will 
reveal this fact. Geography treats of the earth as the 
home of man. History is the story of the past life of 
man. Civics has to do with the present social, indus- 
trial and political relations of man. 

That the unity of these three subjects is being recog- 
nized by school authorities is evidenced by some of the 
recently issued courses of study. But as it is still cus- 
tomary to assign a separate period for each, it often 
happens that each is a distinct subject of study and 
recitation on the same day. If the proposal of some 
were adopted, to group them under one comprehen- 
sive name, such as "The Life of Man on the Earth," 
or "The Story of the Progress of Man," or "Human 
Life," it would seem to be possible to devise one course 
of study, including the three phases, to which only 
one period per day would be assigned. Such a plan 
would release a considerable amount of time for indus- 
trial activities, and might result in more effective 
teaching of these subjects themselves. 

The following plan of correlation is made to accom- 
plish these results. It is presented graphically first. 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 



225 



It will be seen that by this plan geography is made 
the basal subject of study for six and a half years, and 
that the historic and civic elements are recognized and 
emphasized as they appear in the geography study. 
During this same period, history reading and discus- 
sion is taken up as a part of the regular "supplemen- 
tary" reading (this makes excellent material for silent 
reading), and civics is taught principally through the 




Grades I 



JII IV T VI 

Key to the .Diagram 
Geography f==| History [fl Civics] 



Diagram showing comparative amount of time to be devoted to history, geography, 
and civics in school work 



training that the life of the school provides and through 
the discussion that the life of the school and the read- 
ing naturally suggest. A fuller treatment of these 
points will be found in the sections on "History," and 
" Civics." 

It will be seen also that, during the year beginning 
with the middle of the seventh grade and closing with 
the middle of the eighth, United States history is made 
the basal subject of study, and that geography becomes 
a tool with which the pupil is now familiar, and which 
he is now ready to use. Geography will be emphasized 



226 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

also in the discussion of current events. Civics, which 
has been taught more or less informally up to this time, 
during this year will have a place in the study of his- 
tory and will also continue to be emphasized through 
the life of the school. 

By the middle of the eighth year, pupils should have 
such a knowledge of history and of geography that 
they can use these subjects in an elementary study of 
the civic conditions in which they live, and see the 
influence of the forces of which these subjects treat 
upon the development of these present conditions. 
Thus the half-year given to civics will be a half-year also 
of review and application of the history and geography 
previously studied. This sort of review should be much 
more valuable than a going over again of old ground 
in the same way, for it will treat the familiar subjects 
from new points of view and it will establish new rela- 
tions. , 

Geography 

According to the general plan just outlined, geogra- 
phy will be the one inclusive subject through which 
pupils will become acquainted with the "story of 
human life " during the first six and a half years of the 
elementary schools. That story has never been fully 
told. It never can be fully told. Most courses of study 
have erred in prescribing too much of this story for 
study, with the result that teachers have felt hurried 
and overburdened and pupils have been much of the 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 227 

time floundering in a sea of details or in the mire of 
the science of subjects which they are too immature 
to understand. Throughout these years it is the story 
that interests and that can be understood. 

During the first three years it is of little importance 
that pupils acquire definite information. The useful 
results of the course will have been accomplished if 
the childish curiosity has been aroused and partially 
satisfied, if the childish mind has been given food for 
thought, if the childish imagination and sympathy 
have been given wings to fly beyond the immediate 
contracted horizon. But beginning with the fourth 
year the study of geography should become more 
definite. The earth should begin to take shape. The 
distribution of people on the earth, their dependence 
upon it and its varied influence upon them should be 
considered. 

There are two sides to the study of life approached 
from the geographical direction. On one side are the 
pupil's own life and his immediate surroundings; on 
the other side are the life and the conditions that he 
cannot personally touch. The one side is " home geog- 
raphy," the other is "foreign" or "world" geography. 

Home geography 

Home geography should form what may be called 
the subsoil of the entire course in geography. The 
actual physical and social and industrial conditions in 
which one lives furnish the concrete illustrations by 



228 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

which are understood the physical, social, and indus- 
trial conditions about which one cannot have personal 
knowledge. Unless the teacher plows up this subsoil, 
causing the pupils to become conscious of its existence, 
of its qualities and characteristics, — unless he makes 
use of the illustrations that are at hand, — the study 
of geography must be largely a learning and repetition 
of words. Of course it is true that pupils in varying 
degree unconsciously carry somewhat of their per- 
sonal experience into their study of books, but the 
teacher who realizes that all new knowledge, all 
thought regarding the remote can become significant 
only as it is related to and illumined by the concrete 
experience, will not neglect to create opportunities for 
and devise means by which this concrete experience 
may be enriched. This can be accomplished only by 
a conscientious teaching of home geography and by a 
constant use of the facts of home geography for illus- 
tration and comparison. Alice Cary has expressed in 
the following stanzas the need that all have to study 
their immediate, familiar surroundings, if they would 
appreciate them. 

"The truth lies round about us, 
All too closely to be sought, 
So open to our vision that 
'T is hidden to our thought. 

"We know not what the glories 

Of the grass, the flower, may be: 
We needs must struggle for the sight 
Of what we always see." 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 229 

There are two ways of teaching home geography: 
by informal talks about familiar things, and by the 
school excursion. 

Many occasions arise that offer opportunities for 
the use of the first method. There are questions of con- 
duct and of health, there are the varying conditions 
of weather and the changes of seasons, and there are 
incidents relating to human, animal and plant life that 
are constantly attracting the attention of pupils, and 
that teachers may make the starting-point for instruc- 
tion. The possible variety and significance of such dis- 
cussions are indicated by the following topics: "Get- 
ting ready for school"; "Protection of feet in wet 
weather"; "Signs of spring"; "Use of seeds to man"; 
"The new building in town" ; "The rainbow" ; 
"Frost"; "Migration of birds"; "The habits of home 
pets"; "Harvesting hay." 

The second way to teach home geography is through 
the excursion. Much has been written about this. 
It has been highly commended and strongly urged 
upon teachers. However, teachers in this country 
have been slow to adopt it. It is evident that they feel 
that their classes are too large and that the excursion 
takes more of the school time and more of their 
strength than it is worth. Moreover, few, very few, 
teachers have had any experience as students in going 
on these excursions, and they are inclined to doubt the 
value of them. 

And yet conviction that the excursion is a sound and 



230 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

necessary means of acquainting pupils with their 
immediate and adjacent surroundings persists. Par- 
ticularly in cities, each year an increasing number of 
school children visit the art gallery, the public library, 
the park, etc. There is little doubt that as classes be- 
come less unwieldy in size, as the excursion becomes 
more common in high and normal schools, and as less 
stress is laid on "cold-storage" facts by supervisors 
generally, the school excursion will be generally 
adopted as a method of teaching geography in this 
country as it has been elsewhere. 

A few suitable subjects for excursions are here sug- 
gested: For Primary Grades — The blacksmith's shop; 
a near-by river; the autumn woods; a greenhouse; a 
corn field; a grist-mill. For Grammar Grades — An 
Oriental store; a grocery store; an artificial ice plant; 
a commission merchant's store; a bank; the local 
water supply; the fire-engine house; a local factory; 
the town or city hall. 

There is a modified form of the excursion that all 
may use. Individual pupils and committees may visit 
various places and report their observations, in the 
upper grades bringing back photographs which have 
been taken on the trip. Or a question may be assigned 
which calls for special observation by all the class 
within the field of their common experience. Of this 
sort are questions relating to the home, the grocery 
store, the meat-market; to road-building, street traf- 
fic, etc., etc. 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 231 

This study by pupils of their immediate environ- 
ment should continue throughout the eight years of 
the elementary school, as in this way alone geography, 
history and civics are related to life. 

But it is interesting to note that the contemplation 
of the remote is often the most lively incentive to the 
study of the near at hand. When a child learns for 
the first time that there are children who live in snow 
houses, an interest is aroused to compare those houses 
with his own. When a boy reads about bows and 
arrows and chariots and armor, he is ready to con- 
sider with greater enthusiasm the customs of his own 
times. And so it comes to pass that home geography 
need not precede world geography as a study, but that 
the two may go along together, the one reinforcing and 
explaining the other. 

World geography 

World geography, as has been stated before, re- 
lates to that human life and its surroundings that has 
not been seen or touched personally. So long as the 
child has not seen the post office in his own town, the 
post office belongs for him to foreign geography. In 
every large city "The Other Half" described by Jacob 
Riis lives in a foreign country, so far as the "old" in- 
habitants are concerned. Foreign geography, then, is 
not a matter of distance or of time. The remote may 
be as easy to understand and may be as interesting as 
the near by. 



232 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

For use in this study teachers of the first four grades 
have an abundance of books from which to choose. 
Miss Dopp has written of the children of the Cave 
Dwellers, and of the Tree Dwellers. Mrs. Perkins has 
written about the children of Japan and of Holland, 
and of other countries. Jane Andrews has described 
boy and girl life in different climates and periods of 
history in Seven Little Sisters, Each and All, and Ten 
Boys on the Road from Long Ago. There are besides 
stories of the early explorers and glimpses of life as in- 
dicated by such titles as Little Folks in Many Lands, 
Strange Lands near Home, When I was a Boy in China, 
The Eskimo Twins, Under Sunny Skies, The Romance 
of a Mummy, etc., etc. From all these "foreign" parts 
pupils will return bringing a thousand questions that 
will link their own and the other world together. 

Nature study related to seasonal changes, to the 
window flower-box, to the school and home garden, to 
the drawing lesson and the readings suggested above, 
will not be lacking in a school that is taking a broad 
view of the study of geography, for these also furnish 
concrete illustrations that will give a better under- 
standing of the related facts of world geography. 

In the fifth and sixth years the rather miscellaneous 
all-round-the-world plan may give place to a more 
systematic study of the continents, followed by a some- 
what detailed study of the principal nations of the 
world. At all times the center of interest will be the 
United States, the home country, the ultimate ques- 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 233 

tions to be answered being, "How do the people of the 
United States live?" "What and how does each part 
of the United States contribute to the well-being of all 
the other parts?" "What does the United States 
give to and receive from the rest of the world, and 
how are these friendly exchanges brought about?" 

It appears to be generally agreed that by the close 
of the sixth year this elementary field of geography 
should have been surveyed, but that there is yet needed 
a half-year of review, in which the principal countries 
of the world shall be emphasized from the view-point of 
their commercial relations with the United States. 

If the course in geography is planned to stop at this 
point, the middle of the seventh year, a year and a half 
is left in which geographical facts may be reviewed and 
applied in current events, history and civics. 

Products of an elementary course in geography 

Such a study of geography as has been outlined 
should have specific as well as general results. The 
"knowledge of location that pupils should have at this 
time has been summarized as follows: * 

Given an unlettered map of the United States, on which 
the States are outlined, our grammar-school graduate ought 
to be able to write the names of the States in their proper 
places. He ought to be able to do as much for the important 
divisions of South America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. 

He should know the approximate location of the eight or 
ten best known rivers of the Mississippi system, three or four 

1 Professor R. H. Whitebeck, of the University of Wisconsin. 



234 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

of the Pacific Slope rivers, and two or three of Canada; the 
three great river systems of South America; four or five of 
Africa; a half-dozen of Asia; two or three of the British Isles, 
of France, of Germany, and of Russia; also the Po and the 
Danube. He should, of course, know the rivers of the region 
in which he lives. 

He should know the location of such arms of the ocean as 
are highways of the world's great commercial movements. 

He should know the location of those islands and groups of 
islands that are real factors in the world's activities, or have 
a general historic interest. 

He should know the facts of position, direction of trend, 
etc., of the half-dozen most important mountain groups of 
North America, the Andes, Alps, Pyrenees, Caucasus, Ural, 
Himalayas, and Altai; the location of a few of the most fre- 
quently mentioned peaks, such, for example, as Mont Blanc 
and Mount Everest. 

There are a few capes that are often mentioned, such as 
Horn and Good Hope, and their location is worth knowing. 

He ought to know something of the location of the chief 
colonies of Great Britain, France, Germany, Holland, and 
the United States. 

He ought to know something of the location of some 
twenty-five of the chief cities of the United States, what those 
cities stand for in our industrial and commercial life, and the 
advantages of their situation. There are twenty-five or 
thirty foreign cities whose location should be definitely 
known, and also something of what these cities stand for. 
In addition to these, there are fifty or more cities at home and 
abroad whose names ought to be familiar to the pupil. It is 
sufficient to know merely in what state or nation these are 
located. 

Professor Whitbeck is here considering only loca- 
tion facts. There are other facts, of course, that are 
no less important than these. They relate to govern- 
ments, industries, social and religious customs, races 
of people, and to those natural conditions that have 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 235 

affected human life. Under these headings should be 
taught those facts that are of general interest, as in- 
dicated by the frequency with which they are used in 
ordinary discussion and met in reading. 

But useful knowledge is not the only desirable re- 
sult of the study of geography. There are results of a 
different kind that ought to be evident. Among them 
is an interest in the earth and its people, an interest in 
world affairs, that leads to reading and discussion in 
which knowledge is used and increased. Then, too, 
pupils should have acquired the habit of reading maps 
correctly, using the parallels and meridians in deter- 
mining directions and referring to the "Explanations" 
or "Keys" that give the information needed to under- 
stand the maps. Closely related to the correct reading 
of maps is the intelligent use of books. Geography 
should contribute to the training that is necessary to 
make pupils skillful in consulting tables of contents, 
indexes, statistical tables and graphs. In the higher 
grammar grades definite lessons should be given with 
this end in view. 

The products of an elementary course in geography, 
stated briefly, should be (a) the small amount of geo- 
graphical information of divers kinds that is current in 
the general books, magazines, newspapers, and dis- 
cussions of the times; and (b) large human interests 
and good mental habits. 

To illustrate the kind of thinking pupils ought to be 
able to do at the close of their elementary course of 



236 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

study in geography and the kind of facts with which 
they ought to be familiar, the following set of examina- 
tion questions is given: * 

Type Examination in Geography 

Part I 

{Answer ten questions only) 

1. England and Labrador are in the same latitude, 
(a) Account for the difference in climate between the 
two countries, (b) In what way are the occupations of 
the people, their mode of living, and the products af- 
fected by this difference of climate? 

2. During 1915 the opening of the Panama Canal will be 
celebrated in San Francisco by an exposition at which 
all States and foreign countries are invited to exhibit. 
Name one exhibit each of the following States and 
countries will probably make: (a) California, Iowa, 
Pennsylvania, Louisiana, Massachusetts, (b) Cuba, 
England, Japan, Argentine Republic, Chile. 

3. To what government do the following countries belong : 
India, Hawaii, Canada, Philippines, Australia? 

4. Make a list of five different things which you have 
seen recently from different parts of the world. Write 
the name of the country in which they are produced 
opposite the name of the object. Indicate on the map 
by numbers corresponding to the numbers on the list, 
the place in which they may be found. 

5. Name and locate in a similar manner — on the enclosed 
map, using letters, a, b, c, instead of figures — two coun- 
tries that produce large quantities of (a) iron ore, 
(6) lumber, (c) cotton, (d) gold, and (e) wool. 

1 Prepared by the Department of Public Instruction, State of 
New Jersey, and given to all pupils in the State at the close of their 
elementary course in geography, January, 1915. The subject is 
completed in some schools in the seventh grade; in other schools in 
the eighth. 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 237 

6. (a) Name two sections in the United States where there 
are extensive deposits of coal, (b) Name the leading 
city in each section, (c) Name its other industries. 
(d) State how its products are shipped. 

7. Mexico is a country rich in its natural resources. Name 
three of them. Compare it with the United States in 
regard to one of the following: (a) character of the 
people, (6) government, (c) manufactures. Name and 
locate two principal cities. 

8. What do we mean by saying "the sun rises"? Between 
what imaginary lines on the earth do the rays of the 
sun fall at right angles with the surface? The greater 
part of what two grand divisions lies within this belt? 

9. Name four of the following commercial and industrial 
enterprises that you would expect to find in every city 
or town: (a) rolling-mill; (b) grocery-store; (c) planing- 
mill; (d) bank; (e) bakery; (/) stock exchange; (g) stock- 
yard; (h) coal-yard; (i) newspaper; (j) laundry; (k) meat- 
market; (I) flour-mill. 

10. (a) Name three railroads that cross the State of New 
Jersey, (b) Locate one prominent city on each railroad 
and name its leading industry, (c) Name three im- 
portant commodities transported by these railroads. 

11. The ships of the American-Hawaiian Steamship Com- 
pany ply between New York and San Francisco. Name 
three commodities these ships carry to the Pacific Coast 
and three they carry on the return voyage. 

12. New England has gradually changed from a farming 
to a manufacturing section. Give two reasons for this 
change. 

13. Name two leading industries of your section, and give 
reasons for the development of these industries. 

14. A group of four business men, a banker, an iron manu- 
facturer, and a wholesale dry-goods dealer on a business 
trip, and a business man on a vacation, sailed from 
Europe to the United States on the same steamer. Sug- 
gest to each person three cities in which he would be 
interested. 

15. On the enclosed map of the world locate by writing name 



238 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

in proper place: Tokio, Mediterranean Sea, Constanti- 
nople, Pekin, Baltic Sea, Manila, Rio Janeiro, Buenos 
Aires, Nile River, Greenland. 

Part II 

"Special credit" questions 

To the teacher : If any pupils decide to work one of these 
exercises, collect their papers and allow them to use their 
geographies. 

1. Write a paragraph showing how the life of a boy or 
girl differs from your own in one of the following coun- 
tries: (a) Japan, (6) England, (c) Cuba, (d) Russia, 
(e) India. 

2. A prospective inhabitant has written to the Secre- 
tary of your Board of Trade, or a real-estate dealer, 
asking for information about your town or city. Answer 
this letter giving facts concerning the following : (a) op- 
portunities for employment, (6) transportation facili- 
ties, (c) rents and taxes, (d) healthfulness, (e) educa- 
tional advantages, (/) amusements. Address letter to 
James M. Cleaver, 17 State Street, Chicago, 111. 

3. Draw a map of South America and write in proper 
places thereon the names of the natural and manufac- 
tured products of this continent. 

4. Compare Texas with Germany as to (a) size, (6) popu- 
lation, (c) industries, (d) wealth, (e) opportunities for 
education. 

5. Compare the New England States with California as 
to (a) size, (b) population, (c) industries, (d) products, 
(e) wealth. 

Geographical apparatus and its use 

The apparatus useful in the study of geography is 
simple. The blackboard is always available, and 
teachers and pupils should make much more use of it 
than is customary in many schools. An able seventh- 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 239 

grade teacher was once complaining that a certain boy 
could not recite in geography. The lesson was on the 
Great Lakes. She had just remarked that she had 
little time to use the blackboard, in fact she could n't 
do much with the crayon anyway. She was asked to 
let the boy recite at the board, drawing what he knew 
of the Great Lakes section. He was allowed to do so, 
and produced a wonderfully accurate map of the region, 
showing a very full knowledge even to details. This 
boy could talk with crayon better than he could with 
his tongue. 

The sand-table has a limited use. Its value is not as 
great as was formerly assumed. The sand forms are 
suggestive, but are misleading unless the teacher is 
aware of their limitations and guards against them. 
A fourth-grade teacher was misusing this piece of ap- 
paratus, who in a sand-table lesson on slopes, river 
banks and river courses insisted that the water in 
rivers always runs down to the sea. Several of the boys 
maintained that a river sometimes flows away from 
the sea toward the hills. The fact was that a block 
from the school there ebbed and flowed a tidal river, 
which the teacher and pupils crossed daily going to 
and from school. The pupils had noticed that, when 
the tide was coming in, the water flowed under the 
bridge upstream. The teacher had failed to notice 
this, or she saw no relation between it and the lesson 
that she was attempting to illustrate with the sand- 
table. Moreover, as they all were accustomed to climb 



240 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

a hill after crossing the river, it can be seen that a sand- 
table to teach about rivers and hills for these chil- 
dren was an impertinence, and it is possible that the 
teacher's absorption in the piece of schoolroom ap- 
paratus closed her mind to the facts within the range 
of her own vision. 

There remains, however, a useful place for the sand- 
table, After individual hills have been studied from 
nature or from a picture, a generalized hill may be 
quickly constructed in sand. Likewise, generalized 
valleys, rivers, lakes, etc., may be modeled after par- 
ticular ones have been studied. Again, a pupil may 
show in sand his conception of any of the geographical 
forms of land and water as he does by drawings on the 
blackboard. 

Globes should be available for use in every school. 
They are indispensable for getting correct notions of 
a few fundamentals such as the shape of the earth; 
shape, relative size and location of continents and 
oceans; inclination of axis; revolution of the earth; 
parallels and meridians; zones; night and day, and 
the seasons. But they are not as good as maps for the 
determination of location and, in general, for the study 
of details. The inclined axis and the fact that only a 
part of it is visible at any one time, limit its use most 
decidedly. Its presence and occasional use, however, 
cannot help stimulating the geographical and astro- 
nomical imagination. 

Into the reckoning of a teacher of geography this 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 241 

imagination must be taken very seriously. Few adults 
probably ever truly create in their mind a round, 
rotating, forward-moving earth. Likewise few are 
able to see the moon as round, or have the strength of 
imagination to conceive the stars other than as spots 
of light. Too much, therefore, should not be expected 
or attempted in the direction of explaining astronomi- 
cal geography. The important facts may be taught, 
but children must be allowed to learn them with such 
understanding as their limited imagination will permit. 

Maps, next to the blackboard, and in the middle 
grades possibly more than the blackboard, are essen- 
tial tools of the teacher of geography. To be sure, 
maps are inaccurate representations of shapes and dis- 
tances. But these misrepresentations are unavoidable 
and the misconceptions to which they give rise are 
largely unavoidable, although their effects can be 
minimized by the teacher who understands something 
of the construction, the limitations and the language of 
maps. Those who have no knowledge of these matters 
'are likely to err as did an eighth-grade teacher who was 
asked by an observing boy why the maps of North 
America were not the same shape throughout the geog- 
raphy. She insisted that of course they were the same 
shape, as a map was a picture of the continent. She 
sent the boy away unconvinced and mentally con- 
fused. Yet this was a teacher of long experience and 
on the whole efficient. 

Pupils should be taught how to determine direction 



242 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

on a map. It is not a difficult matter for even fourth- 
grade pupils to see that on a globe north is toward the 
north pole and that the meridians are paths leading 
to it. They may then easily see on a map of the hemi- 
sphere that these paths are reproduced, and from that 
time on whenever they read a map they will be able 
to follow these paths no matter what the projection 
on which the map is constructed. In like manner they 
may be taught to use the parallels whenever they wish 
to determine east and west directions. 

Every schoolroom should be supplied with a Merca- 
tor map of the world (and if possible a hemispherical 
map of the world), a map of each continent that is 
being studied, and a large map of the United States. 
These should be a part of the permanent equipment 
of the room. They should be mounted on rollers and 
be hung at convenient places above the blackboard, 
preferably in the front of the room. It is well to leave 
the maps unrolled much of the time, so that pupils 
may refer to them as they study. 

Pupils should learn how to point to places on the 
map and to trace boundaries and routes of travel with 
precision. 

Large outline maps for use by the teacher, while 
pupils are working with small outline maps at their 
seats, are desirable. 

Pictures are as necessary in teaching geography 
as maps and books. Most geography texts are richly 
illustrated, but where it is possible these should be 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 243 

supplemented with lantern slides, stereoscopic photo- 
graphs, postal cards and other pictures collected by 
pupils and teacher. The number, however, is much less 
important than their selection and use. Teachers may- 
make three mistakes here. They may ignore pictures 
entirely; they may have too many of them; they may 
have them but not use them effectively. The study 
of a few will yield better results than the superficial 
looking at many. 

A picture should be treated like a textbook. Some- 
thing definite should be portrayed, and that is what 
should be looked for. A picture, like the printed page, 
should contain material for thought, the answers to 
definite questions. The picture should supplement the 
printed page, visualizing the idea it conveys. 

The increasing use of the lantern in schools lends 
importance to the subject of picture study. In so far 
as the lantern is used to give "picture shows," its edu- 
cational value is relatively slight. Its real worth is 
developed as the slides are carefully studied by indi- 
vidual pupils before they are displayed on the screen. 
One or, possibly, several slides may be assigned to 
each member of the class, who is held responsible for 
the preparation and giving of the comments when the 
pictures are projected by the lantern. In this way the 
lantern gives a motive for investigations of geographi- 
cal questions, and for written and oral compositions. 



244 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

Concerning methods 

There is perhaps no one factor in teaching geog- 
raphy that will so control the method of instruction 
as the nature of the "problem" that is set for study 
and solution. It is not necessary at this point to dis- 
cuss the central place of the problem in all mental 
action that is properly called thinking. This has been 
considered in other sections, and fully in other books. 1 
Neither need it be pointed out that the problem has 
been involved in the study of geography in the past, 
although it was not called by that name, and its im- 
portance was seldom recognized. For instance, when 
a teacher put on the board an outline for the study of 
the physical features of a continent, such as "Moun- 
tains, Rivers, High Plains, Low Plains, Lakes, Coast, 
etc."; or an outline for the study of a country, such as 
"Surface, Drainage, Soils, Climate, Products, Races, 
Government, Exports, Imports, etc.," there was in fact 
a problem in each case that might be stated, "What 
are the principal physical geography facts relating to 
such a continent or country?" — or, "What are the 
principal facts relating to such a country, grouped 
under the headings, Surface, Drainage, etc.?" 

It can be seen at once that such problems as these, 
even though they are not formulated, will decidedly 
influence the methods of instruction and of study, and 

1 Notably, How to Study, by F. M. McMurry, and How We Think, 
by John Dewey. 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 245 

will determine the kind and number of facts that will 
be considered by the class. If the problems are ab- 
stract and unrelated to life, geography will be abstract 
and dead. 

What are the proper geographical problems for 
pupils to solve in the primary and in the grammar 
grades? Few satisfactory ones have yet been proposed, 
for a good one in geography should have, as in arith- 
metic, three qualities: it should be worth solving; it 
should be within the mental capacity of the pupil; and 
each one should be of such a kind that its solution will 
make the pupil more skillful or more intelligent in 
solving the next one. Moreover, the pupil must un- 
derstand the problem he is solving — it is not enough 
for the teacher alone to know it — and he must keep 
it in mind as he studies until a solution is reached and 
stated. 

The following exemplify those suitable for primary 

grades : — 

1. Where field flowers grow and how they are protected. 
$. How we are fed. — Compare with Cave Dwellers. 

3. How we are clothed. — Compare with Cave Dwellers. 

4. How we are sheltered. — Compare with Cave Dwellers. 

5. How plants work for man. 

6. How do people live on mountains? — Compare with 
pupils' life. 

7. How do people live on the seashore? — Compare with 
pupils' life. 

8. Dramatize typical Oriental, savage, tropical situations. 

9. What different ways do people have of transporting 
goods? 



246 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

For the grammar grades problems like the following 
are suggestive : * 

1. What each continent receives from and gives to the 
United States. 

2. Of what use is each ocean to the people of the United 
States? 

3. Why is it easier to build a railroad from Moscow to 
Berlin than from Paris to Madrid? 

4. Brazil is a country nearly as large as the United States, 
and it has been known to European countries for four 
hundred years. Why has it a population only one 
fourth as large as that of the United States, and why is 
it just beginning to take a prominent part in inter- 
national affairs? 

5. What are the factors that have been largely influential 
in developing the United States into a great industrial 
nation? 

6. Advantages of the location of ten of the important 
cities of the world. Disadvantages. Compare with 
home city or town. 

7. In spite of its small size, Holland is one of the great mer- 
cantile nations of the world. What has caused this? 

8. The Argentine Republic has a better opportunity for 
future development than any other country in South 
America. Explain why this is so. 

9. Why do the people who live on deserts and in the re- 
gions of perpetual snow have no settled homes? 

10. Prove that immigration has been both a help and a hin- 
drance to the development of the United States. 

It would be well-nigh impossible for a teacher, who 

was using the problem effectively in the geography 

lessons, to make a poor use of the text-book, or of the 

supplementary geographical reader. There would be 

no occasion for such a teacher to assign sections of text 

1 Taken largely from Course of Study in Geography, History, and 
Civics, Indianapolis Public Schools, 1914. 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 247 

to be memorized, neither would there be time to de- 
vote to purposeless oral reading. Such a teacher realizes 
that the facts contained in the text have value only as 
the pupils see their relations. Therefore there will be 
much class study with the teacher in which these re- 
lations become evident through the selection and use of 
the facts needed in the solution of the problem in 
hand. One or more phases of the problem may be left 
for private study, or some questions that have been 
raised will be assigned for individual or class investi- 
gation. 

If a chapter is assigned for study without previous 
consideration in class, a definite purpose should be as- 
signed for guidance in the study. Such a purpose is 
possible for almost every page of even the most un- 
interesting textbook. For example, in one geography 
half a page is devoted to a statement of disconnected 
facts regarding the surface of the British Isles. Such 
a section looks most unpromising. But a hasty read- 
ing will disclose two statements of importance to the 
people of the United States relating, one to the pro- 
duction of coal and iron, and the other to the raising 
of flax. Another statement recalls Scottish history, an- 
other explains the reason for the name "Emerald 
Isle," and yet another relates to peat, a fuel peculiar 
to Ireland and a few other places. Thus there is, even 
in this apparently barren half -page of text, a problem 
that, if it is formulated, will excite the pupils' interest 
and will lead them to read carefully, and to select and' 



248 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

weigh the relative value of facts. The problem here 
might be stated, "What in this section is of particular 
interest to the people of the United States? — to the 
people of Ireland? — to the people of Scotland?" 

The supplementary geographical reader should be 
used in this same thoughtful way. Parts ought doubt- 
less to be omitted, parts should be lightly skimmed, 
while some sections will be worthy of careful study. As 
far as possible, pupils should be made the jury for de- 
ciding on the relative value of the different parts of the 
books they read, so that they may be able to rely more 
and more on their own reading judgment. This sub- 
ject has been quite fully discussed in the chapter on 
"Reading." 

When the subject under discussion is suitable, dram- 
atizing will be found as desirable a method of learn- 
ing in geography as in arithmetic, reading, history, or 
hygiene. At the request of the pupils who were study- 
ing life in India, a fifth-grade teacher permitted them 
to dramatize an "Oriental bazaar." After a short con- 
ference among themselves a dozen were selected to take 
the lead. Soon the teacher's desk was moved aside and 
the space in the front of the room was cleared. The 
heads of the dozen again came together. Meanwhile 
comments and suggestions, aloud and in undertones, 
were coming from the other pupils. Soon the dozen 
disappeared into the cloak-room. Shortly they reap- 
peared as Orientals, coats turned inside out to give 
strangeness to the costume, handkerchiefs tied around 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 249 

the heads for turbans, wraps thrown over the heads 
of the girls to simulate veils. They gravely took their 
places on the floor in a circle, and, gathering their feet 
under them, announced to the school their readiness 
to do business. Several came from their seats and a 
bargaining began for various imaginary articles, — 
rugs, gems, silks, spices, etc., — that would have made 
an Oriental wonder if he were not back in his accus- 
tomed haunts. All this took only about fifteen minutes. 

In such an exercise the ideas are presented vividly. 
There is no difficulty in getting pupils to talk and it is 
not probable that important facts will be forgotten. 

There is perhaps less call for work in construction 
above the fourth grade, but the occasional modeling of 
a contour map, and the making of models of homes, 
bridges, carts, etc., as they are found in different coun- 
tries will be interesting to some pupils and useful for 
all. 

The use of the blackboard has been referred to. The 
pencil also is always at hand, and it should be used in 
geography much more than it generally is. In the 
lower grades pupils may copy and draw from memory 
many of the features of the illustrations in their text- 
books, such as the houses of simple people, their tools, 
weapons, etc. They may draw hills, lakes, islands, 
rocks, etc., and copy the pictures of grains, vegetables, 
etc., if these are given with sufficient detail to make 
their characteristics evident. 

The elaborate and careful drawing of maps, on 



250 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

which much time was formerly spent, has given place 
to rapid sketching of map outlines for immediate and 
temporary use. These sketch maps are very helpful in 
many phases of geography work, and the sketching 
habit should be cultivated by teachers and pupils. 

In this discussion of methods of teaching, in which 
teachers and pupils have taken so large a part, it is not 
inappropriate to quote at some length the impressions 
and judgment of the well-known Russian Jewess, Mary 
Antin. She has related her experiences in the American 
public schools in her book entitled The Promised Land. 
Regarding the study of geography she writes as fol- 
lows : — 

In the grammar school I had as good teaching as I had in 
the primary. It seems to me in retrospect that it was as good, 
on the whole, as the public school ideals of the time made 
possible. When I recall how I was taught geography, I see, 
indeed, that there was room for improvement occasionally 
both in the substance and in the method of instruction. 
But I know of at least one teacher who realized this; for I 
met her eight years later, at a great metropolitan university. 
. . . Very likely they no longer teach geography entirely 
within doors, and by rote, as I was taught. ... In all branches 
except geography I made genuine progress. ... In geography 
I merely made a bluff, but I did not know it. Neither did my 
teacher. I came up to such tests as she put me. 

The lesson was on Chelsea, which was right: geography, 
like charity, should begin at home. Our text ran on for a 
paragraph or so on the locality, boundaries, natural fea- 
tures, and industries of the town, with a bit of local history 
thrown in. We were to learn all these interesting facts, and 
be prepared to write them out from memory the next day. 
I went home and learned — learned every word of the text, 
every comma, every footnote. When the teacher had read 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 251 

my paper she marked it "EE." "E" was for excellent, but my 
paper was absolutely perfect, and must be put in a class 
by itself. The teacher exhibited my paper before the class, 
with some remarks about the diligence that could overtake 
in a week pupils who had had half a year's start. I took it 
all as modestly as I could, never doubting that I was indeed 
a very bright little girl, and getting to be very learned to 
boot. I was "perfect" in geography, a most erudite subject. 

But what was the truth? The words that I repeated so ac- 
curately on my paper had about as much meaning to me as 
the words of the Psalms I used to chant in Hebrew. I got 
an idea that the city of Chelsea, and the world in general, 
was laid out flat, like the Common, and shaved off at the ends, 
to allow the north, south, east, and west to snuggle up close, 
like the frame around a picture. If I looked at the map, I 
was utterly bewildered; I could find no correspondence be- 
tween the picture and the verbal explanations. With words 
I was safe; I could learn any number of words by heart, and 
sometime or other they would pop out of the medley, clothed 
with meaning. Chelsea, I read, was bounded on all sides — ■ 
"bounded" appealed to my imagination — by various things 
that I had never identified, much as I had roamed about the 
town. I immediately pictured these remote boundaries as a 
six-foot fence in a good state of preservation, with the Mystic 
River, the towns of Everett and Revere, and East Boston 
Creek, rejoicing, on the south, west, north and east of it, 
respectively, that they had got inside: while the rest of the 
world peeped in enviously through a knot hole. In the middle 
of the cherished area piano factories — or was it shoe fac- 
tories? — proudly reared their chimneys, while the popula- 
tion promenaded on a rope walk, saluted at every turn by the 
benevolent Soldiers' Home on top of Powderhorn Hill. 

Perhaps the fault was partly mine, because I always would 
reduce everything to a picture. Partly it may have been 
because I had not had time to digest the general definitions 
and explanations at the beginning of the book. Still, I can 
take but little of the blame, when I consider how I fared 
through my geography, right to the end of the grammar- 
school course. I did in time disentangle the symbolism of the 



252 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

orange revolving on a knitting-needle from the astronomical 
facts in the case, but it took years of training under a master 
of the subject to rid me of my distrust of the map as a rep- 
resentation of the earth. 

For in the schoolroom, as far as the study of the map went, 
we began with the symbol and stuck to the symbol. No 
teacher of geography I ever had, except the master I re- 
ferred to, took the pains to ascertain whether I had any 
sense of the facts for which the symbols stood. Outside the 
study of maps, geography consisted of statistics; tables of 
population, imports and exports, manufactures, and degrees 
of temperature; dimensions of rivers, mountains, and politi- 
cal states, with lists of minerals, plants and plagues native 
to any given part of the globe. The only part of the whole 
subject that meant anything to me was the description of 
the aspect of foreign lands, and the manners and customs 
of their people. 

COLLATERAL READING 

1. On the teacher's attitude: — 

Genetic Psychology for Teachers. C. H. Judd. 
Chapter III, pages 78-84. 

2. On dramatizing: — 

The Dramatic Method of Teaching. Harriet Finlay- Johnson. 
Chapter VIII. 

3. On the relation of the near and the remote: — 

How We Think. John Dewey. 
Chapter XVI, pages 221-24. 

4. On the relation of geographic factors and life: — 

The New Basis of Geography. Jacques W. Redway. 
Chapter IV. 

5. On the use of the textbook: — 

The New Basis of Geography. Jacques W. Redway. 
Chapter VII. 

6. On maps: — 

The New Basis of Geography. Jacques W. Redway. 
Chapter IX. 
Also the following book: — 

Teaching of Geography in Elementary Schools. Richard E. 
Dodge and Clara B. Kirchwey. 

The most recent treatment of the subject. A reliable guide for super- 
visors and teachers. 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 253 

History 

In the first six and one-half years 

Referring to the general plan outlined in the fore- 
going pages by which the study of geography, of his- 
tory, and of civics are closely related, it will be seen 
that for the first six and one-half years of the ele- 
mentary-school course it is proposed to teach history 
through geography and through supplementary read- 
ing. For it is evident that in so far as geography deals 
with the doings of peoples of present or past times, with 
their costumes, houses, and manners of life, it is using 
the same material that history uses. Some of the litera- 
ture also read in these years will have historic signif- 
icance, notably such poems as the Lays of Ancient 
Rome, The Charge of the Light Brigade, Paul Revere' s 
Ride, etc. 

But in addition to the history found in these re- 
lated subjects, there should be a carefully worked-out 
course in historical reading. The books for this course 
should be selected from the standpoint of their appeal 
to the children in the grades to which they are as- 
signed rather than with the idea of building up in their 
minds a systematic view of history. Such a view chil- 
dren of twelve to fourteen years of age are not capable 
of taking. Their mental eyes are not yet so far-sighted. 
They are, however, naturally interested in the pic- 
turesque and the personal, that is, the dramatic, the 
adventurous aspects of life, and these ought to be 



254 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

brought to their attention in great abundance; not 
to study intensively but to contemplate extensively. 
Again, because of the so common misuse of oral read- 
ing, it needs to be emphasized that much, possibly 
most, of this supplementary reading should be of the 
silent reading sort, preceded or followed by class in- 
struction and discussion. 

For instance, the many delightful stories of chivalry 
and of the heroes, real and mythological, of other 
times, must be largely despoiled of their possible value 
for the child who is ready to enjoy them, if he is to be 
mentally bound by a halting, fragmentary, oral read- 
ing of them. Rather let the books be turned over to 
the class to read silently, each pupil browsing where he 
will and going at his own pace. If the assigned book 
cannot be read with facility, it has not been well 
chosen for that class. 

But, it may be asked, "What is the teacher to do 
during these silent reading periods?" She may call to 
her desk from time to time one or several pupils, who 
may need the practice, for undertone, oral reading. 
She may notice here and there pupils who are not ab- 
sorbed in their reading. These she may call to her and 
discuss with them the story. She may select some of 
the unusual words, or the names of some of the per- 
sons mentioned, for discussion at the close of the period, 
in this way reviewing the reading of the day. Or she 
may wait until the entire book has been read by at 
least half the class, and then have one or two periods 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS Z55 

given to a retelling of the stories, possibly assigning 
each story to several pupils. Then there may follow 
an oral reading period, or possibly two periods, in 
which some of the striking passages will be rendered. 
Among these selections the teacher will be careful to 
include any stirring poems that may be found, such 
as A Steed I A Steed ! Of the Coming of the ' Saracens, 
The Troubadour, and so forth. 

In the books read during the first six and a half 
years there will be stories about the early life on this 
continent, dealing with the Indians and the white peo- 
ple of the exploration and settlement periods. There 
will be an abundance of biographical reading, so that 
pupils will become familiar with the great names of 
history, such as Columbus, Washington, Franklin, 
Lincoln, Alexander, Caesar, William the Conqueror, 
Napoleon. They will memorize now and then such 
literary selections as have historic significance, like 
The Gettysburg Address, Paul Revere' 's Ride, The Charge 
of the Light Brigade, and others. The field of juvenile 
historic fiction will not be neglected, but the best that 
can be found in it will be brought to the pupil's atten- 
tion. 

As a summary of the foregoing, it may be said that 
during the first six and one half years of school pupils 
should come into contact with a large variety of the 
types of life and of the experiences of people of the 
past and present through their study of geography 
and literature, and through their supplementary and 



256 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

historic reading. The celebrations of special days — 
Thanksgiving, Christmas, Decoration Day, and of the 
birthdays of our national heroes — will also make con- 
tributions to this gallery of historic pictures. The re- 
sults should be an awakened and a nourished imagina- 
tion, and an interest in other times, places, and peo- 
ples. There will be a small store of facts that are of 
enough value to be remembered, but for the most part 
the facts or assumed facts which have been presented 
have served their purpose in producing the very real 
and important, if somewhat intangible, results just 
mentioned. By such a preparation pupils will be ready 
in the seventh grade to take up the study of United 
States history systematically in a textbook. 

In the seventh and eighth years 

There has been a decided change in recent years in 
the character of the United States history textbooks 
written for seventh and eighth grades. Authors are giv- 
ing great care to select those facts of history that have 
been influential in producing present conditions. They 
are selecting those phases of history for emphasis that 
relate to social and industrial life. And, most impor- 
tant of all, they are treating the subject so that the 
pupils, although they be but children, may begin to 
realize that people in the past were like themselves in 
their needs and ambitions; in their likes and dislikes; 
in their sympathies and prejudices; in their suscep- 
tibility to good and evil influences. 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 257 

These authors have seemed to be at one with Emer- 
son, who writes : — 

The fact narrated must correspond to something in me 
to be credible or intelligible. We, as we read, must become 
Greeks, Romans, Turks, priest and king, martyr and execu- 
tioner, must fasten these images to some reality in our secret 
experience, or we shall see nothing, learn nothing, keep noth- 
ing. 

All that Shakespeare says of the king, yonder slip of a boy 
that reads in the corner, feels to be true to himself. 

The student is to read history actively and not passively; 
to esteem his own life the text, and books the commentary. 

To help teachers make history thus real, to help 
them make the study something other than the mem- 
orizing and repetition of assigned pages and chapters 
of a textbook, a wealth of suggestions is available. Let 
us visit a school where some of these suggestions are 
being successfully applied. 

If the visit is made during the first lesson of the 
term, we shall find the teacher and the class making a 
study of the new textbook as a book. It is to be their 
almost daily companion for a year. They are to under- 
stand at the outset its purpose, and become acquainted 
with its contents as a whole. Together, then, the 
teacher and pupils will be found commenting on 
the cover, the title-page, and the copyright page; the 
teacher giving such information as he may have re- 
garding author, publisher, copyright laws, etc., and 
referring all questions not instantly answerable to in- 
dividuals for investigation and later reports to the 
1 Essays (First Series), "History." 



258 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

whole class. The table of contents next claims atten- 
tion. The plan of treatment employed by the author, 
the relative importance of subjects, as indicated by 
allotment of pages, names of persons and places that 
are already somewhat familiar are noted. Then the 
index is compared with the table of contents, and the 
use of each is discussed. Some practice is given in using 
each by hunting up the answers to some simple ques- 
tions the teacher may ask for the purpose, such as 
"How many chapters are there in the book?" "How 
many different references are made to France?" "How 
many Appendixes are there?" etc. This leads to the 
assignment of the next lesson, which is, "Read the 
Preface and write on a slip of paper one thought of the 
author that you think is worth reading to the class. 
Also give some idea of the contents of each Appen- 
dix." 

The next time this school is visited, a new chapter 
is being studied, "The Story of the Virginia Colony." 
The teacher does not have one pupil after another rise 
and read; but he says, "Give me the names of persons 
and places you find in the chapter and I will write them 
on the board." To do this the pupils must skim 
through the chapter, noting the names on a slip of 
paper. These are listed on the board. Familiar names 
are underlined, and important ones indicated by a 
cross. The main points in the chapter are then se- 
lected and briefly considered. 

The assignment for the next lesson is given as fol- 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 259 

lows : " Be able to state which are the most important 
of these names and explain why they are important. 
Be able to find quickly the references to the other 
names so that we may briefly discuss them. Write a 
paragraph summarizing the chapter." 

The teacher informs us at the close of the lesson that 
after this general survey of the entire period he pro- 
poses to have the class imagine (or play) they are the 
settlers. They will start in England, re-creating the 
situation there and the various causes that led the 
Puritans to seek a new country. They will go through 
the experiences of establishing themselves in their 
pioneer homes, discussing the questions that were 
vital, and determining whether or not they would have 
decided them as they actually were decided. 

We ask how many lessons this will take, and if every 
period of the history is treated in the same way. The 
teacher replies that the number of lessons depends 
somewhat on the way the class "takes hold," but that 
he guards against robbing other periods of their due 
proportion of time. As to the treatment of other 
periods, wherever peculiar conditions of life are a 
factor, he states that he tries to have the pupils put 
themselves into those conditions. This can be done 
sometimes by dramatizing a typical or critical incident 
or situation: sometimes by the pupils assuming the 
parts of the principal characters of a given period, 
representing their points of view and stating their 
arguments. The former method is applicable to such 



260 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

incidents as the voyage of Columbus : the departure of 
the Mayflower from England and its arrival at Plym- 
outh: a colonial school and other phases of colonial 
life. The second method of dramatizing is applicable 
to the period just before the Revolution, to the critical 
period before the adoption of the Constitution and to 
the period preceding and the one succeeding the Civil 
War. In these periods there are opposing ideas which 
it is important for the pupils to understand, and often 
they can do it best by accepting, for the time, the 
ideas of each side as their own. 

The teacher said we might visit the class during any 
one of these exercises. We were present at a review 
lesson on the Revolution. The pupils had selected as 
the subject for this lesson "Washington's Farewell to 
his Soldiers." The teacher was seated at the back of 
the room. "Washington" took his place at the front 
of the room, and his "old soldiers" came from their 
seats and stood about in groups of two and three. One 
talked to another of some battle in which they had been 
engaged; several spoke of some characteristics of their 
chief, and referred to important events in his life. In 
turn, they shook hands with "Washington." He called 
each by name. One among them had been with him 
on his surveying trips; one had been present at Brad- 
dock's defeat; another had seen him take command of 
the army. At last "La Fayette" approached. "Wash- 
ington" turned and discussed briefly the war, its 
causes and results, and the country's debt to France. 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 261 

"La Fayette" replied with a prophecy of the future 
greatness of the new country. 

It appeared that one lesson only had been given to 
the preparation of this exercise. In this short time the 
general plan had been developed, and each member of 
the class had selected or had been allotted a character. 
The pupils were to be held responsible for the dia- 
logue, and the teacher was to rate each one as he took 
his part. Most of the girls took men's characters. 
"Molly Stark" and "Mrs. Washington" were the 
only women present. 

In response to another invitation we visited the class 
and found a debate in progress on the question, "Re- 
solved, That no State ought to be allowed to leave the 
Union." There were six debaters, boys and girls. It 
appeared that for several weeks the class had been 
studying the period leading up to the Civil War. At 
one time all the pupils had imagined themselves citi- 
zens of South Carolina; at another time they had iden- 
tified themselves with the citizens of Massachusetts. 
They had thus tried to get into the spirit of each side, 
and to-day "Hamilton," representing the early phase 
of the discussion, "Webster" and "Henry Clay" rep- 
resenting the later phase, were to meet "Jefferson," 
" Calhoun," and " Douglas." The arguments were sim- 
ple; there was no attempt to be original. Each was ex- 
pected to present as clearly as he could the ideas held 
by the man whom he represented. Parts of the debates 
were written and read; parts were given from notes. 



262 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

In response to an inquiry regarding some magazine 
pictures and other clippings that were on a bulletin 
board, the teacher said that the pupils were interested 
in bringing these to the class and occasionally a period 
was given up to the discussion of them. It appeared 
that they had recently had a "picture " lesson, in which 
each pupil recited from a picture. The idea was not 
only to show the picture to the class, but to point out 
the important features in it and to give its historic 
setting and significance. The teacher went on to say 
that pupils were prepared for this work by the study 
made of the pictures in the textbook. These were 
studied for their historic message as thoughtfully as 
the text. Through a richly illustrated magazine article 
pupils had become interested in the symbolic paint- 
ings of history and were bringing pictures of that char- 
acter to the class for discussion. 

"By the way," continued the teacher, "you may be 
interested in the diary of Columbus, of Mrs. Anne 
Hutchinson, of Pocahontas, of a private soldier at Val- 
ley Forge, and of a fugitive slave. In a diary one may 
express one's feelings and hopes more frankly than in 
letters. You will find that in these diaries the pupils 
have identified themselves very sympathetically with 
the persons whose character and place in history they 
have assumed, and that they have made these persons 
very human. 

"Here are some short letters written by persons, 
great and small, in different periods of our history. 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 263 

Several of the letters are illustrated with pictures cut 
from magazines or with pencil sketches." 

"All of this," we observed, "is evidently very suc- 
cessful in interesting pupils in history, in acquainting 
them with the people, the events and the human prob- 
lems of the past; but when do they learn the facts of 
history, and when and how do you prepare for exam- 
inations?" 

The teacher replied, "The superintendent, the prin- 
cipal, and I approve the attitude of Professor H. Morse 
Stephens when he says that he cares little how much 
students know when they enter his classes in history at 
the University of California, but that he is very much 
concerned how interested they are in history. We try, 
however, not to neglect facts, and at certain times we 
have 'fact lessons.' The lists of facts to be reviewed 
are made sometimes by the entire class, and some- 
times by committees appointed for the purpose. 

"As to examinations, we never have one in history 
that is purely a memory exercise. They generally 
consist of three parts. First, a few facts that every one 
should know are called for. Second, there are two or 
three questions that require discussion in which is 
shown the quality of thinking a pupil has been doing 
in history. Third, the written papers are collected and 
pupils are allowed to consult their textbooks in answer- 
ing the remaining questions of the examination. This 
is a test of their ability to use books. 

"Thus we aim to have the examinations measure the 



264 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

results we have been trying to secure. Evidences that 
a pupil is interested in history, that he has read more 
than he was required to, that he has been doing more 
than superficial thinking, count more than his ability 
to recall what the book gives. For such examinations 
as these, no special preparation can be made." 

Two more questions closed our interviews with this 
teacher, and may properly close this discussion of the 
teaching of history. We asked what use was made of 
maps in the history classes and how much collateral 
reading was required. 

The teacher replied, "We find that the study of 
United States history makes an excellent review of the 
geography of our own country, and in a measure, of 
the world. We make constant use of maps. As you 
see, they are hung just above the blackboard, on spring 
rollers, and sometimes they are all in use during one 
lesson. Pupils are expected to sketch quickly on paper, 
or on the blackboard, any part of the world that 
they may be studying — not always, however, from 
memory. 

"The collateral reading is not an easy matter to 
regulate or direct. Some pupils are inclined to read too 
much, while others will read very little. There are 
pupils who neglect assignment reading, but who read a 
good deal of a miscellaneous sort if they are allowed 
freedom in its choice. I try to be tolerant of the tastes 
of these pupils. 

"To interest all pupils in history, the teacher must 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 265 

use a, variety of methods. Some become interested 
through dramatization, others through debates, and 
yet others through current events and it is invariably 
these interests that lead them to read outside their 
textbook. When they begin to do this of their own 
accord, we consider that our teaching of history has 
been succcessful." 

COLLATERAL READING 

1. On history in the first six years of school: — 

The Place of History in Education. J. W. Allen. 
Chapter XIII. 

2. On dramatization: — 

The Dramatic Method of Teaching. Harriet Finlay- Johnson. 
Chapters II, III, IV. 

3. On the kind of history to teach: — 

(a) The New History. James H. Robinson. 

Chapter I, part II, and Chapter V. 

(b) The First Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of 
Education, pages 35-36; 39-4<4s. 

Civics 

To train pupils to be good citizens is to teach civics. 
Among all the responsibilities now resting on the pub- 
lic schools none is more weighty than that of perfecting 
this department of education. The full meaning of 
this responsibility has been realized only recently. 
For while it has always been true that in a good school 
training has been given in some of the fundamental 
virtues of citizenship, such as obedience and deference 
to authority, cleanliness, orderliness, promptness, 
truthfulness, exactness in the performance of duties, 
yet it has not always been given with the conscious 



ZQ§ THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

purpose of making better citizens. Rather it has often 
been incidental to the producing of better scholars, and 
to the creating of conditions favorable for the conduct 
of good schools. 

This sort of training is necessary, and it is good as 
far as it goes; but it does not go far enough. For, while 
cultivating responsiveness to external control, it neg- 
lects the cultivation of self-control. And in this neglect 
it ignores certain other qualities that are desirable in a 
good citizen, such as inclination and ability to find 
work for one's self, systematic and skillful application 
to self-appointed tasks, ability to take and carry re- 
sponsibility, recognition of social, industrial and politi- 
cal obligations, spirit of cooperation, open-mindedness 
and tolerance of others' opinions, judgment in the face 
of everyday practical situations, intelligence and con- 
scientiousness in matters relating to health, and in- 
tellectual as well as moral courage. 

The former program of training needs enlargement; 
its purpose needs to be made more inclusive, and, 
what is equally important, the training needs to be- 
come a process of which pupils and teachers alike are 
conscious, carefully thought out and systematically 
continued throughout the school life, bearing definitely 
toward an ideal of citizenship. 

Children may realize very early in their school life 
that they are now citizens, and that in school they are 
learning how to live the citizen's life more worthily. 
This was a controlling idea of the Greek and Roman 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 267 

boys in their school. Froebel fashioned the kinder- 
garten by it. 

If the school is organized in conformity with this 
ideal, it will be in fact a miniature democracy. Here 
the young citizen will live a controlled and regulated 
life, learning to obey those in authority; learning also 
to control and direct himself and others in various 
situations. Through class discussions he will come to 
understand his own rights and obligations, and the 
rights and obligations of others. Through the examples 
of those about him, through specific instruction, and 
through special exercises planned for this purpose, he 
will learn how to conform to the customs of the so- 
ciety in which he lives, and how to participate accept- 
ably in the life about him. 

To put the matter in another way, all the activities 
of the school, social and industrial, all its discipline, all 
its study of books should be planned with a view to 
furthering the realization of the ideal of citizenship ex- 
pressed in the following inspiring words that are worth 
learning by every school boy and girl in America: 

The Good Citizen Says 1 

I am a citizen of America and an heir to all her greatness 
and renown. The health and happiness of my own body 
depend upon each muscle and nerve and drop of blood doing 
its work in its place. 

So the health and happiness of my country depend upon 
each citizen doing his work in his place. 

1 John Cotton Dana, Librarian of the Free Public Library, 
Newark, New Jersey. 



268 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

I will not fill any post or pursue any business where I can 
live upon my fellow-citizens without doing them useful serv- 
ice in return; for I plainly see that this must bring suffering 
and want to some of them. I will do nothing to desecrate the 
soil of America, or pollute her air or degrade her children, 
my brothers and sisters. 

I will try to make her cities beautiful, and her citizens 
healthy and happy, so that she may be a desired home for 
myself now, and for her children in days to come. 

Thus viewed, civics involves the study and practice 
of hygiene; that is, of health of body and of mind. It 
involves the study and practice of morals; that is, right 
social and industrial conduct, including clearly good 
manners. It involves the consciousness of high ideals 
and the acceptance of them as controlling influences 
in life. 

From this point of view the school, a miniature 
democracy where young citizens are becoming en- 
lightened and trained in the arts of citizenship, may be 
thought of as a gymnasium in which the teacher as- 
sumes the double function of instructor and "coach." 
As instructor, the teacher in each grade will follow a 
definite course of study in civics, adapted to the ages 
of the pupils, so that they will become progressively 
conscious of their rights and duties as citizens. As 
"coach" the teacher will be skillful in relating this 
instruction to the fitting occasions that arise or that 
are created in school, so that what is discussed and 
learned may not remain theories and abstract ideas, 
but may become in reality controlling forces in con- 
duct. 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 269 

There is a very close relation between such a course 
of instruction and training, and the study of govern- 
ment. In fact, in this process will be revealed at many 
points the reason for government control and the need 
of co-operating with it. For instance, a first-grade 
child, who is considering in school the matters that re- 
late to obedience to parents and to their care of him, 
can be led to realize that the policeman is protecting 
him from the dangers of teams and automobiles when 
he enforces the law against playing in the street, and 
that in obeying the policeman he is obeying a law of the 
city government that was passed for his own good as 
well as for the good of others who have an equal right 
to the use of the streets and sidewalks. The policeman 
is not only a city official, but he is also a friend and 
guardian. The careful parent sees to it that the child 
wears rubbers in wet weather to guard him against 
taking cold. Obedience to this law of the parent pre- 
vents illness. The city government is also interested in 
the health of children and has laws requiring families 
to clear their sidewalks of snow. It employs men to 
clear out the gutters so that water will not flood the 
sidewalks, and it keeps the street crossings free from 
snow and mud. 

Again, even questions of politeness lead directly to 
considerations bearing upon government, for pupils 
of all ages can see that if they have learned how to be 
thoughtful in their relations to others, to defer to 
elders, to help the weak, to respect the person of 



270 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

those with whom they come in contact, they have 
learned to do voluntarily what the Government re- 
quires under certain circumstances, where people 
gather in crowded stations, on the street, and in pub- 
lic assemblies. 

Thus the pupils will become acquainted with those 
parts of the government machinery that touch their 
own lives, until, in the eighth year, they will make a 
somewhat thorough study of the whole plan and pro- 
cedure of national, state, and local government. 

Such a scheme of civic instruction and training, to be 
completely effective, must have a place in the general 
life of the school, in the school industrial activities, 
and in the study of books. 

Teaching civics through the life of the school 

The spirit of the school will determine more than 
anything else the quality of civic training the pupils 
receive. If the teacher's attitude is domineering and 
the pupils' attitude is submissive, the fundamental 
conditions favorable for civic training will be lacking, 
and any instruction in civics given in such a school 
must be purely academic. 

On the other hand, if the teacher has the attitude of 
a guardian, of a friendly senior guide, a counselor and, 
in time of need, a controller, the pupils in most cases 
will assume naturally a teachable, tractable, open- 
minded attitude. They will be responsive to sugges- 
tions. They will become partners with the teacher in 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 271 

all that pertains to making the school a desirable and 
stimulating place to live in, instead of a place merely 
to sit and exist in. 

The spirit of liberty 

While there will be freedom in such a school, there 
need be no license. The sense of the teacher's final 
authority need never be absent any more than the 
sense of the final government authority is absent in 
the community. The realization of the purpose and 
limits of liberty will become ever more definite as 
pupils are allowed to live by its laws. No teacher can, 
of course, release at once a school that has been bound 
by and habituated to the autocratic rule. In some 
schools a larger number of mistakes will be made by 
pupils in the process of developing self-control than in 
others. Some individuals may not be quite normal be- 
cause of physical or mental peculiarity or unfortunate 
home or social influences. But, trying as these dif- 
ficulties may be, there is no more reason for maintain- 
ing a policy of repression in a school than there is for 
maintaining it in a community or nation. The policy 
of control and discipline ought always to be directed 
towards the realization of the democratic ideal. 

There are many ways in which this spirit of liberty 
may express itself. Occasionally committees of pupils 
may be appointed to care for school books and ma- 
terials, and for their distribution. If this is done 
merely for the teacher's convenience, or if these duties 



272 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

are assigned to the pupils only who do them particu- 
larly well or because they happen to sit in the front or 
rear seats, those who need the training least will pos- 
sibly receive most of it. These duties should be as- 
signed to all in turn and be made a means of training 
for all. 

The care of dressing-rooms, corridors, and play- 
ground pupils may share also with the teacher. They 
may decide with the teacher what restrictions or regu- 
lations are desirable in the school building and on the 
playground. 

The teacher, who has made the spirit of liberty 
dominant in school, will give a sympathetic hearing 
to all suggestions made by the pupils that lead to self- 
activity and self-direction on their part. Some of these 
suggestions may lead to unusual and unconventional 
activities, but if they are in themselves wholesome and 
feasible, they should be encouraged and the pupils 
should be helped to carry them to a successful issue. 

In a school of this sort the senior class earned its own 
money for the expenses of graduation. The girls made 
their graduation gowns. The boys sold articles made 
in the school shop and with the money thus earned 
purchased their graduation suits. In another school 
the class decided to earn the money for the class gift. 
Several of the boys earned their contribution by es- 
tablishing a shoe-blacking "parlor'* in a corner of a 
dressing-room, where teachers and pupils could buy 
a "shine" for a penny. In a certain large city school it 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 273 

is the custom for the boys in the upper grades to take 
turns in supervising the passing of pupils in and out of 
school, one teacher only being in evidence at such times 
on each floor. Preliminary training for this larger re- 
sponsibility is given in each of the lower rooms, where 
each boy takes his turn in overseeing the files in his 
room. If any disorder occurs the incident is reported 
fully, it is discussed in class, and the desirable policy 
in each situation is determined upon. This becomes 
the law of the school on approval of the principal. Now 
and then a committee of pupils is appointed to study 
and report on some matter that relates to the good 
name of the school, to the conduct of pupils on the 
street, to the cleanliness of the school building or the 
condition of the grounds. Inasmuch as these reports 
do not refer to individuals their discussion is imper- 
sonal, and the standard of thinking and action in those 
matters on which reports are made is generally raised 
perceptibly. 

Use of dramatization 

Occasionally, too, a lesson or discussion of some 
timely topic will naturally lead to a dramatization. 
In a certain seventh-grade room the teacher had oc- 
casion to bring to the attention of the class a matter 
relating to good manners. In the discussion that en- 
sued she discovered that the boys seemed to approve 
politeness as a general policy, but that they were un- 
certain regarding what constituted it in specific situa- 



274 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

tions. She finally said, "Suppose we try to solve some 
conduct problems?" The following are samples of 
those that were proposed : — 

" 1. A number of boys and girls wish to go through 
the same doorway." 

"2. A pupil wishes to leave the room during a 
recitation." 

"3. A boy and a girl pass each other on the street." 

Two girls and two boys volunteered to solve the 
first problem. They started for the nearest door, which 
happened to be a spring door, opening outward. One 
of the boys stepped ahead to open it for the others, but 
found the situation complicated by the spring which 
kept the door from remaining open. The result was, 
that the first girl had to hold the door open herself 
while she passed through, and the second boy "forgot 
his manners" and pushed ahead of the second girl. All 
of this aroused friendly protests from the boys at their 
seats, and the "actors" returned for a general discus- 
sion of the situation. Two other plans for getting 
through the doorway were tried before it was agreed 
that, under the circumstances, the first boy should 
have asked permission of the nearest girl to pass ahead, 
thus making it possible for him to hold the door open 
while the others passed through. Meanwhile, the sec- 
ond boy had learned to "watch out," and not get 
ahead of the second girl. 

The problem of passing out of the room during a 
school exercise gave rise to a variety of situations. The 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 275 

teacher placed herself in front of the door; a number 
of pupils, acting as visitors, blocked the aisles. It was 
assumed that the class was reciting first on one side 
of the room, and then on the other. The pupils dis- 
cussed each situation and solved the problem by leav- 
ing the room with the least disturbance under each set 
of conditions. 

In attempting to solve the third problem questions 
like these were asked, " On which side of a person ought 
one to pass?" "Which hand should one use in raising 
the hat?" "How is one to raise a limp cap?" 

It is needless to say that for the remainder of the 
term the teacher noticed a pronounced improvement in 
the manners of both boys and girls in the schoolroom 
and on the street. There was greater courage and 
more evident assurance and ease in meeting situations 
that required knowledge and judgment. 

Relation of school and outside interests 

Boys and girls have many interests out of school that 
may be utilized for training in citizenship. The school 
may take note of them. They may be discussed, the 
problems and difficulties in each may be considered, 
and school credit even may be given for creditable per- 
formance in these practical affairs outside of school. 
If a boy is helped to sell papers better, to be honest and 
efficient in his business, whether it be doing errands, or 
helping at home and on the farm; if a girl becomes 
more skillful in her performance of household tasks, 



276 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

because of the interest and help of the school, the school 
is doing its proper work in civics. 

It is, evidently, not the doing of these specific things, 
or the mere doing of other similar things, possibly 
some quite trivial, of which numberless examples 
might be given, that makes them valuable in civic 
training. But when they are the expression of the 
spirit of liberty that pervades the school, they are sig- 
nificant. When they are thought out and carried on 
for the purpose of establishing those mental and moral 
attitudes and of cultivating those qualities that are 
desirable in good citizens, they become, like the simple 
exercises of the gymnasium, a preparation for success- 
ful participation in the world's life. 

Moreover, the relation of these childish problems 
and activities to government should be made clear. 
Those people who do not keep themselves and their 
homes clean become a menace to the community health, 
and government steps in and enforces cleanliness. Peo- 
ple who do not control themselves within prescribed 
limits, or who are conspicuously ill-mannered, are con- 
trolled by the arm of the law. 

The school as a civic organization 

A school may be made thus a training-ground for 
citizenship without any formal organization for this 
purpose; but some have thought that the training 
could be made more effective by organizing the school 
as the community itself is organized. Such an organi- 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 277 

zation, in its most complex form, is called "A School 
City." It is brought about by the adoption of a 
" charter" modeled after a city charter. Officers are 
elected, duties are assigned, meetings are called, in 
accordance with the provisions of the "charter." With 
proper supervision this plan has worked out success- 
fully in many places, providing fine civic training for 
school leaders as well as for the general body of school 
citizens. 

A less elaborate organization is the "Junior Civic 
League." This is perhaps better adapted to primary 
than to grammar grades. The pledge, purpose, and 
general plan of work are here given. 1 

The Pledge 

I pledge myself not to deface any fence or building, neither 
will I scatter nor throw rubbish in public places; I will not in- 
jure any tree, or shrub, or lawn; I promise not to spit upon 
the floor of the schoolhouse, nor upon the sidewalk; I will 
protect the property of others as I would my own; I will al- 
ways protect birds and other animals; I will promise to try 
to be a true loyal citizen. 

The Object 

The object shall be to help keep our school and neighbor- 
hood beautiful, clean, and healthful. 

The Work 

Committees must be formed that answer the immediate 
needs of the school, and further committees will have to be 
appointed as the season changes, or as events in the school 
give occasion. Committees should be appointed to care for 

1 From The Teaching of Civics, by Mabel Hill. 



278 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

window-boxes; for the planting and transplanting of bulbs; 
for the inspection of waste-baskets; for the care of unclaimed 
property; for the inspection of seat work material; for super- 
vision of outdoor gardens; for inspection and care of side- 
walks, grounds, and streets about the school building, etc. 

The school savings bank is another kind of organi- 
zation for civic training. This has a variety of forms. 
In some places local banks deal directly with the pu- 
pils. In other places, a woman's organization adopts 
and carries out a plan, representatives visiting the 
schools regularly to receive the pupils' savings. In 
yet other places, the teachers have charge of the col- 
lection and banking of these funds. But the best 
plan, where conditions are favorable, is to have this 
entire matter taken over by the commercial depart- 
ment of the high school. Thus a piece of real busi- 
ness is introduced into the department, giving most 
practical training, provided it is done according to 
actual savings bank methods. 

Teaching civics through school industrial activities 

The school savings bank, operated by the high 
school commercial department, is an illustration of 
the sort of correlation that must be made between the 
school industrial activities, and real problems and 
actual business and industrial methods, if these ac- 
tivities are to give industrial training and insight. 
Moreover, where this correlation has been established, 
the activities are found to cultivate also some quali- 
ties that are desirable for all citizens. 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 279 

An illustration of such effective correlation in a 
small school district is here given: l 

The industrial and practical features of the schools are: a 
complete equipment for teaching and demonstrating cooking 
and domestic science, a manual-training shop, a printing- 
shop, a henhouse and a school bank. 

In the domestic science department all the work has a 
direct bearing upon the life of the student as he is living it 
now. Each day a lunch is prepared and served to the stu- 
dents and teachers by the classes taking work in the depart- 
ment. The amount charged for the lunches pays for all the 
material used and leaves a profit of from $1.25 to $2.50 a 
day. 

The girls in this department learn not only food values, 
with the science and art of cooking, but they are required to 
study the cost of food, the planning and serving of a meal 
and the care of the kitchen, all the cleaning being done by 
them. The students working at any one period are selected 
in such a way as to have older girls and younger girls work- 
ing at the same time. Each girl of some experience is given 
charge of a younger girl who acts as an assistant. All the 
girls are still further made to feel responsible by requiring 
some definite thing from each one each day, such as the 
preparation of some article of food, sweeping the room, dust- 
ing the room, care of the closets, etc. Each day the bills for 
the material used, with a statement of receipts, are sent to 
the commercial department in the high school, where all the 
accounts are kept. At the end of the month the students 
who have had charge of the accounts prepare a detailed 
statement showing receipts and disbursements and the bal- 
ance of profits. 

The bills from the domestic science department are also 
used in the grades, where they are made the basis for the 
study of business forms. All extensions and footings are 
checked, and if found correct the O.K. of the class is placed 
upon them. If an error is discovered the class takes up the 

1 From a report by A. M. Hulbert, Supervising Principal of the 
schools of Park Ridge, New Jersey. 



280 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

matter with the person furnishing the material and sees 
that it is corrected. 

Hardly a bill comes in that does not contain material which 
readily lends itself to the subject of geography, spelling, 
English or history. These points of contact are carefully 
watched and are used according to the alertness and re- 
sourcefulness of the teacher. 

The classes in manual training are encouraged to study 
the needs of the school, their own personal needs and the 
needs of the home. Work is then given according to what 
the pupil finds needful or necessary to be done. A few con- 
crete examples will illustrate the work. In the domestic 
science building are about fifty windows. Last spring the 
necessity of screening these windows was brought to the 
attention of the boys. They studied material, cost, best 
type of frame, etc., and then built and hung screens in all the 
windows. The girls needed a kitchen closet. The boys 
planned and built it, saving at least $25. 

The printing department serves as another adjunct in mak- 
ing the regular work of the school concrete, and emphasizes 
the desirability of care, precision and accuracy. All school 
stationery and all blank books and forms used in the bank- 
ing department, as well as the school paper, are printed here. 
As the printers become more proficient we hope to produce 
from the school press all blanks and forms used in the com- 
mercial department. 

In the chicken-house fifteen to twenty hens are kept. The 
possibilities in this department in a rural community are 
almost without limit. At present the hens are cared for by 
the boys of the sixth grade, who are happy in doing the work. 
They furnish the kitchen, at the regular market price, the 
eggs that are used in cooking. The boys doing this work study 
the subject of chicken husbandry, keep strict account of the 
cost and income and are able to determine whether the hens 
show a profit or loss. 

The school bank has proved to be one of the most popular 
enterprises that have been undertaken. It is organized and 
operated just as any bank would be. The teacher in charge 
spent considerable time in a national bank studying books, 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 281 

methods, etc. The accounts are kept precisely as in a regu- 
lar bank, all work being done by the students in the commer- 
cial department of the high school. Any pupil in the school 
may deposit any amount from a penny up. Interest at 4 per 
cent is allowed on all amounts from $1 upward. Withdrawals 
are made on signature of the depositor countersigned by 
parent or guardian. 

In some rural districts the agricultural and domestic 
activities of the pupils are studied in regularly assigned 
periods, and the reading, composition, spelling, arith- 
metic, and drawing lessons frequently relate to the 
school and home garden work, to the home and school 
sewing, cooking, fruit canning, etc. 

In the highly organized workshops and sewing- 
rooms of city schools it is becoming the general custom 
to have all work even in grades as low as the fifth done 
under real shop conditions. Time cards are kept so 
that pupils learn to realize that "time is money." 
Stock cards are kept, so that "material cost" may be 
known. No work is done unless the workman has a 
definite purpose to fulfill. The article may be made 
to keep, to give away or to sell, but the pupil must 
want to make it for some purpose. Thus the article 
will be planned with a definite purpose in mind, and 
this purpose will determine the size, material, design, 
finish and cost. The materials for such articles are paid 
for by the pupil. 

But a part of the shop work will be for the school, 
so that pupils will learn to work together for the com- 
mon good, and to return to the community in service 



282 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

some part of the contribution made by the community 
for their welfare. 

Teaching civics through books 

Many suggestions are made in the chapters treating 
of reading, composition, spelling, penmanship, mathe- 
matics, geography, history and hygiene, relating to 
methods of study that will give training in social 
conduct, and that will tend to produce mental habits 
of practical, everyday use in the life of a citizen out- 
side of school. Selections in the reading book, poems 
that are memorized, and frequently subjects discussed 
in the composition lesson, will offer occasion for a 
wholesome lesson in civics, a lesson in which the 
teacher will not preach but will direct the pupils' 
thoughts in such a way that they will make their own 
comparisons and draw their own conclusions. 

There are, besides, books of selections of poetry and 
prose that illustrate virtues, or desirable human quali- 
ties, such as courage, obedience, patriotism, truth- 
fulness, etc. These selections, including episodes in 
the lives of worthy men and women, are suggestive 
and inspiring. If they can be used to throw light on 
real situations that arise in school or to reinforce par- 
ticular civic lessons the impression they make on the 
pupils may be deep and lasting. 

Geography and history, dealing as they do largely 
with the life of human beings, are in a measure text- 
books on civics. This has been pointed out elsewhere. 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 283 

In primary grades 
The geography-history books read in these grades 
present the life-story of plants and animals, and the 
varied life of children in other lands. The wealth of 
material that is available is revealed in even a short 
list of these books : — 

Lindsay Mother Stories and More Mother Stories. 

Alcott Aunt Jo's Scrap-Bag. 

Poulsson In the Child's World. 

Dopp The Tree Dwellers. 

The Cave Dwellers. 

Longfellow Hiawatha's Childhood. 

Andrews The Seven Little Sisters. 

Each and All. 

Defoe Robinson Crusoe. 

Perkins The Dutch Twins. 

The Japanese Twins. 
Bryson Child Life in Chinese Homes. 

The many incidents and human experiences that 
occur in such books invite children to compare their 
own lives with those about which they read. These 
stories bring them face to face with the simple every- 
day duties and pleasures that are created by the family 
and community relations, and they illustrate those 
personal qualities and attitudes that promote indi- 
vidual, family and community well-being. 

In the fifth and sixth grades 

The more systematic study of geography in these 
grades brings into relief the element of government, 



284 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

in its various forms, among primitive peoples and in 
highly developed states. Through these frequently re- 
curring references to civic conditions and governments, 
pupils should come to realize the advantages of health- 
ful, intelligent, progressive living for themselves, their 
school, their town or city, and their country. 

This knowledge of what constitutes personal and 
community prosperity will be increased by the reading 
of history stories relating to pioneer life, to adventure 
and travel, and to various periods of history. 

Again the material is abundant, as the few books 
listed below indicate : — 

Hale The Man Without a Country. 

Spyri Heidi. 

Mabie Norse Legends. 

Aanrud Lizbeth Long frock. 

Andrews Ten Boys. 

Pyle Story of King Arthur and his Knights. 

Tappan American Hero Stories. 

In the Reign of Alfred the Great. 

Hart How our Grandfathers Lived. 

Otis Colonial Series. 

Pioneer Series. 

In the seventh and eighth grades 

The textbook for the study of United States history 
is at the same time a sufficient textbook for the study 
of civics during the first part of these years. Through 
its pages are scattered topics and texts relating to civic 
questions, and it is an advantage to discuss these ques- 
tions in their historic setting. The sections describing 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 285 

the early colonial life, the colonial conditions before 
the Revolution, the beginnings of the constitutional 
period, and the period since the Civil War, contain all 
the material that is needed for an understanding of 
how and why the community and government has 
come to be as we find it to-day. 

But after a year has been given to United States 
history, pupils are prepared to study systematically, 
although in an elementary way, the community con- 
ditions in the midst of which they live, state and na- 
tional, as well as local. For this they need a civics 
textbook. 

The kind of textbook selected is of first importance. 
From the point of view of the discussion in the fore- 
going pages, it is evident that the textbook must have 
for its main purpose to put the pupils at work investi- 
gating their own immediate civic situation, for here 
will be found the concrete material for study. To this 
end the book will state questions that can be answered 
only by such investigations. It will suggest how these 
investigations may be carried on. It will provide for 
the study of local problems that are discovered by the 
pupils themselves. The textbook will also contain the 
information that is needed to supplement adequately 
the facts discovered by the pupils, and it will help them 
to interpret their facts. It will point the way to his- 
toric reviews and will make evident the influence of 
geographic forces. It will be a guide to collateral read- 
ing. Finally, the textbook will suggest ways and 



286 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

means by which the pupils may become intelligent 
participators in the civic affairs of the community, 
since this is the goal toward which all study of civics 
should tend. 

Conduct of the recitation 

But the selection of a good textbook does not insure 
a good use of it. It is evident that the teacher of civics, 
in the sense in which the word is here used, is called 
upon to take a very different attitude from that of the 
teacher of facts about government, and to conduct 
her class exercises in a very different way. It goes 
without saying, that the mere assigning of lessons and 
hearing of recitations has no place here. The general 
character of a class exercise, in which the textbook 
is given its proper subordinate place, is described in 
the following words: l 

The classroom exercise will occupy a supplementary, if 
not a secondary position. It will be a formal meeting where 
children gather to discuss their social affairs, much as citi- 
zens go to a club or a town meeting. Here they will report 
their problems, exchange information, propose solutions, and 
assign parts, emphasizing the constant common obligation 
of each little citizen and designating the especial committees 
with particular tasks. Throughout these stated classroom 
meetings, the teacher will be the natural leader. Out of his 
superior wisdom he will stimulate and supervise the group, 
suggesting methods and appraising achievements. 

1 Henry Suzzallo in the Editor's Introduction to The Teaching 
of Civics, by Mabel Hill. 



GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, CIVICS 287 

Tests of successful civics teaching 

Some of the tests that a teacher of civics may apply- 
to his work have been stated in the form of questions, 
as follows : l 

Does our civics teaching appeal to the pupils' present, 
actual interest as citizens? 

Does it afford the pupil an adequate motive (a) for study- 
ing the subject, (6) for participating in civic activities? 

Does it stimulate the pupil to cooperate actively in the 
interest of his own community; i.e., his class, school, family, 
neighborhood, city, state, nation? 

Does it train the pupil's judgment relative to civic situa- 
tions and methods of dealing with them? 

Does it cultivate in the pupil civic initiative? 

Does it select and organize information with reference to 
its relation to the civic experience and interest of the pupil? 

To accomplish these desired results no ambitious 
program is necessary, but there is required a sane 
and well- trained teacher with a vision to see the young 
citizen in perspective, and with the ability to use the 
forces and the opportunities at hand for his training. 

COLLATERAL READING 

1. On Conduct Problems: — 

(a) How We Think. John Dewey. 

Chapter IV, pages 54, 55. 

(b) The Teaching of Civics. Mabel Hill. 

Editor's Introduction. 

2. On Methods: — 

(a) The Teaching of Civics. Mabel Hill. 

Part I. 
(6) The Community and the Citizen. A. W. Dunn. 

Introduction for Teachers. 

1 Introduction to The Community and the Citizen, by A. W. Dunn. 



THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 



Lessons: — 
(a) The Teaching of Civics. Mabel Hill. 

Part II. 

(6) The Community and the Citizen. A. W. Dunn. 
Introduction for Teachers. 
Also the folloiving books: — 

Lessons for Junior Citizens. Mabel Hill. 

Civics for children approached from the standpoint of government con- 
trol in towns and cities. Lessons given in the form of stories. 
A Course in Citizenship. Ella L. Cabot and others. 

Lessons through stories and poems on civic relations. Suggestions 
for morning talks. 
The Place of Industries in Elementary Education. Katharine 
Dopp. 

The be3t and most concrete treatment of the subject, showing 

the relation between the book and application in history, geography, 

civics, and other elementary subjects. 

Pamphlets issued by the United States Bureau of Education: — 

The Teaching of Community Civics. Bulletin, 1915, No. 23. 

The Trend of Civic Education. Reprint from Commissioner's 

Report of 1914. 
Civic Education in Elementary Schools as Illustrated in In- 
dianapolis. Bulletin, 1915, No. 17. 



CHAPTER V 

HYGIENE 

There can be no difference of opinion that instruc- 
tion and training in matters of health must occupy a 
large place on the school program. In fact, good health 
is so fundamental to successful living that all civilized 
communities have assumed the task of securing it 
in ever increasing degree to all. How to perform this 
task is perhaps the foremost concern of citizens and 
governments to-day. 

Public and School Responsibility 

Public and private health agencies have been mul- 
tiplied in recent years. There are pure-food laws, and 
food inspectors; there are tenement-house laws, and 
inspectors; there is free hospital treatment for all kinds 
of ailments; there is school medical inspection; and 
there are playgrounds, gymnasia, and recreation cen- 
ters. 

But through the school alone can be given that in- 
struction and training during the period of growth that 
will make the conduct of the great body of citizens 
self -controlled and intelligently directed. 

How the teacher's part of this responsibility may 
be successfully met is now pretty clear as a result of 



290 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

the study and experimenting of many students of edu- 
cation and of many teachers. There are two means 
at his command, the life of the school and the text- 
book. These must be used skillfully and they must 
be closely related. 

The possibilities of the school as a training-ground 
for citizenship have been discussed at some length in 
the section on "Civics." Good health as a factor in 
good citizenship has also been referred to. It remains 
to indicate here some specific ways in which the life 
of the school may contribute to the establishment 
of conduct habits that bear upon the health of the 
young citizen. 

And first it may be noted that no one, child or grown 
person, is likely to do this or that desirable thing or to 
refrain from doing the undesirable thing, except in a 
haphazard way, without a sense of personal respon- 
sibility. Few are likely to have a sense of responsi- 
bility where responsibility has not been systematically 
assumed. Children differ as much as grown people in 
their natural tendency to assume it, and this differ- 
ence in temperament ought to be considered by teach- 
ers as much as difference in arithmetical or any other 
kind of ability. For it is the duty of the teacher to cul- 
tivate in each pupil a sense of responsibility in matters 
of health and not simply to utilize the interest of 
those who are naturally care-takers. 

A beginning may be made in the most obvious situa- 
tions. For instance, the schoolroom and entry floors 



HYGIENE 291 

are clean, while the roads and school-yard are muddy. 
The teacher may make rules about cleaning shoes be- 
fore entering the building, he may threaten and he may 
punish disobedience of the rules. By such a course the 
teacher assumes sole responsibility for the clean floors. 

There is a better way, however. The teacher may 
start a discussion in which he will stimulate the pupils 
to talk freely about their observations — the dirt that 
is in the roads and on the sidewalks, the dust that 
results when this dirt dries, the appearance of a dirty 
floor compared with the appearance of a clean one, 
etc. If it is agreed that such dirt is untidy and unde- 
sirable to breathe, the teacher may put the question, 
"How can we keep it out of doors?" Practical results 
are sure to follow such division of responsibility. Pupils 
will be fertile in suggestions. Facilities for cleaning 
shoes will be placed at the entrances to the building; 
committees of pupils will be appointed each week to 
look after this matter. The teacher becomes a friendly 
overseer; the pupils become directors and performers 
of self-appointed duties. Many of the discussions may 
be carried on very properly during the oral composition 
period, with a written paragraph to follow, if it seems 
timely. 

Again, the effect of sunlight shining directly into the 
eyes; or the injury to eyes in trying to read indistinct 
writing on the board, or print in books when the light 
is dim, or the results of constant bad posture while 
sitting or standing; these and many other matters 



292 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

relating vitally to health may be treated in much the 
same way. By these discussions, in which the pupils 
take a much larger part than the teacher, the evil, 
being thus related to their own lives, becomes real, 
and the adoption of practical ways of avoiding it is 
the natural outcome. Thus the evil is avoided, not 
by the teacher's exercise of authority, but by the 
pupil's own feeling of obligation to himself and to the 
school. 

It may happen sometimes that a pupil in adjusting 
the shades to regulate the light for his own conven- 
ience, or in regulating the temperature, or in doing 
any other thing desirable in itself or for his own 
personal advantage or convenience, may inconven- 
ience others. Lowering the shade may darken the 
room too much; raising the shade may cause a re- 
flected light on part of the blackboard; raising the 
window to reduce the temperature of the room may 
endanger the health of those sitting near the window. 
Such situations are sure to arise as soon as pupils at- 
tempt to be "doers of the word and not hearers only." 
But instead of being disturbed at these occurrences, 
the thoughtful teacher will rather welcome them. 
They will be recognized as the very occasions that are 
needed for teaching the pupils how to translate gen- 
eral instruction into particular acts. It is this kind of 
immature effort to do the right thing that causes 
thoughtless parents at home to say, "Oh, stop med- 
dling with the curtains. I'll fix them myself." But 



HYGIENE 293 

the teacher, having in mind the training of children 
will say, "John wished to regulate the light. Let us 
all consider his problem and help him solve it in the 
best way." In the brief discussion that follows, the 
various factors of the problem will be considered — 
the convenience of others; the lighting of all parts of 
the room, not simply one desk; the lighting of the 
blackboards. Then other ways of meeting John's need 
for more light may be proposed. Thus John's failure 
to perform skillfully a well intentioned act will prove 
a benefit to the entire school. 

By the end of the second year of school, and from 
that on, pupils should habitually protect themselves 
from eye strain; they should habitually stand prop- 
erly when they recite and do many other things that 
are desirable from the standpoint of health, not at the 
reiterated suggestion of the teacher but because they 
know how and are self-governing in these particulars. 
In the school, that is in truth a training school, many 
opportunities will arise for the teacher to put into 
action the latent power of the pupils, thus affording 
them first-hand experience in health conduct. Some 
of these opportunities are pointed out in the succeeding 
pages. 

For Teachers of Grades I-IV 

Children in these grades are little interested in the 
laws of health in the abstract, and they cannot yet 
understand the reasons for the different lines of action 



294 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

that are discussed. They are not yet able to derive 
much profit from the study of a textbook on hygiene. 
They need positive and definite instruction given in 
such a way that they can at once put the instruction into 
practice. Almost all the lessons may be dramatized, 
that is to say, acted out in a variety of ways. Dia- 
logues may be composed orally in the hygiene or com- 
position time, and later they may be written. Children 
of these grades will delight to "play" these dialogues 
and dramatic games, and with little help from the 
teacher will plan them and carry them out, for they 
are exactly the sort they play by themselves when they 
"play house," "play dolls," "play store-keeping," 
etc. If the children do not do these things in school it 
is because the teacher in some way prevents it. 

A few concrete illustrations are here given. The 
teacher will be able to apply the method implied in 
them to the various topics he selects to teach, and 
he will be able to adapt them to the grade of pupils he 
may have. 

Reading by lamplight 

The teacher has had a simple lesson on the sensitive 
nature of the eyes, in which pupils have been allowed 
to speak of the near-sighted people they know. At the 
proper moment the teacher will mention the fact that 
reading at night with a poor light is one cause of eye- 
strain that leads to defective vision and headaches. 

It is then suggested that they play that they are a 



HYGIENE 295 

family sitting about the table in the evening. A father, 
mother, and one child are first selected as actors. A 
committee is quickly appointed to arrange the table 
and chairs. A vase, or plant of appropriate size, will 
serve for a lamp. The family take seats at the table, 
the father reading his newspaper, the mother pretend- 
ing to sew, and the child sits down to read. Question, 
"How shall the 'child' sit so that the light will fall 
correctly on his book? " 

The "child" will begin to read, sitting and holding 
his book as he thinks best. The class will then discuss 
his position and others may take his place to illus- 
trate different positions. Meanwhile all pupils at their 
seats may test themselves, holding a book as they nat- 
urally do in reading. 

Other "families" may be selected with two, or with 
three children, so that the pupils may learn how to 
meet more complicated situations. 

On several succeeding days the teacher may keep 
the lesson fresh in mind by asking, " Who were careful 
last evening to read by a good light and so that the 
book was illuminated from the left and rear?" Those 
who did not do this may be allowed to describe the 
conditions that prevented. 

Exercise in the use of the toothbrush 

The preparatory lesson on the need for using a tooth- 
brush has been given with simple directions for its use. 
The teacher has a new brush with which she illustrates 



296 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

her talk. Each child in turn may come to the front 
and "making believe" that he has a brush and a tum- 
bler of water, may go through the motions of brushing 
the teeth up and down, from side to side, the back of the 
teeth and the tongue and rinsing the mouth. 

Exercise in conduct — at the dining-table 

After a preparatory discussion of the different ways 
that various nations have of eating, the Chinese, the 
savage, etc., the children are led to see that the meal 
may be a happy and orderly and refined social event. 
Certain conventions are observed by all people. Some 
of our conventions may be stated on the board as 
follows : — 

1. Do not eat fast. 

2. Do not make a noise when eating soup. 

3. Do not fill the mouth too full. 

4. Do not smack the lips. 

5. Do not open the mouth when chewing. 

6. Wipe the mouth with a napkin. 

7. Do not pick the teeth or put the fingers in the mouth 
at the table. 

8. Carry food to the mouth with a fork or spoon. 

9. Do not laugh with the mouth full of food. 

10. Do not lean on the table with the body or arms — sit 
erect. 

11. Do not make gestures with knife, fork, or spoon. 

12. Children should not talk too much at table. 

13. Do not leave the table without asking permission of 
mother, or if mother is not present, of father. 

These precepts may be brought into a dramatic ex- 
ercise in which the children correct each others' imag- 
inary mistakes or the "parents" correct the children. 



HYGIENE 297 

Teaching cleanliness 

The work of the teacher begins long before she 
reaches the schoolroom. The pupils will look at her as 
a model; and young eyes are very sharp. If her clothes 
are untidy, her finger nails dirty, her hair carelessly 
arranged, or her shoes rusty, they will be the first to 
detect it, and will be wondering why she does not do 
what she says they ought to do, and they will begin to 
doubt, perhaps, whether cleanliness is such a very 
necessary thing after all. 

At least twice a week let the teacher begin the day's 
work by an inspection of the pupils. If they are ac- 
customed to line up outside the school-building and 
march in, the inspection may take place in the school 
yard. They may be drawn up in two lines, with hands 
extended, palms down. The teacher passes between 
the lines examining head, face, neck, ears, hands, 
clothing, to right and left. Each child may drop his 
hands as the teacher passes. Those who are pro- 
nounced untidy will step from the line. After inspec- 
tion, those who have passed muster will march to the 
building. Those in the "Careless Squad" may be 
given two or three minutes to correct their fault, if 
they can. Others, and the habitually careless, will 
need special help, and this must often be given with 
great tact. Much depends on the character of the 
community. In some places it would be a good thing 
to send the careless pupils home with a note stating the 



298 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

cause; or possibly with an older boy or girl who could 
explain that the teacher insists upon cleanliness, adding 
that this is not the only careless child and that all care- 
less children are treated in the same way. But in dis- 
tricts where attendance is irregular, because parents 
are not anxious to keep their children in school, such a 
measure would fail to accomplish the desired result. 
In such a place the child's pride must be appealed to. 
The matter may be taken up privately the first time, 
calling his attention to the clean children, telling him 
how much better he would look, how much better he 
would feel, if he kept himself tidy. Encouragement 
and opportunity to grow out of his carelessness grad- 
ually is better than harshness. Let him get out of the 
"Careless Squad" just as soon as he shows he is trying 
hard to do better. 

Inspection may be made in the schoolroom by rows, 
if that is preferred, having the pupils rise, one or two 
rows at a time, and stand in position in any open space 
in the room (front, back, or side). 

As stated before, in some schools inspection should 
be made at least twice a week, and during the first 
month daily. The days may be changed so that, if 
necessary, the children may not know when to expect 
inspection. On days when there is no formal inspec- 
tion the teacher may observe the children as they are 
sitting. If a child is untidy, his attention should be 
called to his condition before he goes home, and he 
should be directed to be more careful the next time. 



HYGIENE 299 

The assistance of the medical inspector, if there is 
one, should be sought in extreme cases. 

Emergency treatment 

In the early grades the teacher can probably best 
convey the lesson by putting it into the form of a story. 
For instance, she wishes to teach the proper treatment 
of a cut. A story like the following might be told : — 

" John was a boy ten years old. He asked for a knife 
as a present for Christmas. Uncle Samuel gave him 
one, explaining how he was to use it, that he must 
never run with it when it is open, that he must always 
whittle away from his body and his hand; and he also 
showed him how to open and shut it so as to avoid 
cutting himself. What boy has a knife? Will you 
show us how to use it correctly? 

" John did pretty well for a while, but he at last made 
a mistake and ran to his mother with a cut finger. It 
was bleeding badly, but that was not very important, 
for it showed John had good blood. His mother washed 
the cut clean with clear, warm water, and bound it up 
in a clean cloth. 

" Let us imagine some one has cut his finger. First 
I will be 'mother,' then one of you can be." 

The teacher has at hand a basin of water, some pure 
soap, and some strips of clean cotton cloth. She first 
cleanses and binds up a supposed cut on the hand of a 
pupil. Pupils in turn do the same for each other. 



300 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

For Teachers of Grades V-VIII 

At the beginning of the fifth grade teachers will 
need to supplement their own instruction by a text- 
book. But in using the textbook they should not yield 
to the subtle temptation to turn the subject into a 
book study. To live well is still to be the outcome of 
the study rather than to know much. The textbook 
is, therefore, to be used in such a way as to illuminate 
and stimulate individual action, and one should be 
selected that lends itself best to this kind of use. 

The undesirable and the desirable ways of using the 
textbook may be distinguished by a few illustrative 
lessons. As these are reports of actual lessons, the 
grades in which they were given are indicated, al- 
though similar lessons might be found in any of the 
grades that uses a textbook. 

An eighth-grade lesson 

Teacher — "Take physiologies and turn to page 40. 
John, you may read." (John reads a paragraph.) 

Teacher — "The next pupil may read." (The pupil 
reads a paragraph.) 

Teacher — " Is there any one who does not under- 
stand what has been read so far? Well, the next may 
read." 

This reading was continued for about twenty min- 
utes. A few mispronounced words were corrected. 
One or two paragraphs were re-read "because the first 



HYGIENE 301 

reader did not read it smoothly." The teacher made a 
few remarks upon the meaning of the text. The read- 
ing was poor, the attention was indifferent. The sub- 
ject of the chapter was " Corpuscles," but at the close 
of the lesson no member of the class appeared to know 
what corpuscles were except one girl who thought 
"they might be bugs" although no such inference 
could be drawn from the text. 

This is an extreme example of a type of hygiene 
lesson that is all too common. The teacher who gives 
this kind of lesson will vary it sometimes by the as- 
signment, "Take your physiologies and study the 
second chapter. I will hear you recite presently." 
Both varieties are bad, but the latter is less harmful, 
for at least during the study period the pupil is not 
interfered with. 

A fifth-grade lesson 

The visitors on entering the room found the pupils all 
looking down between the desks, apparently at the floor. 
At a word from the teacher the pupils sat up, and they 
and the teacher together made this explanation: — 

Several weeks before the class had been reading in 
the textbook a section on cleanliness of clothes. In the 
discussion that had arisen during the reading, refer- 
ences had been made to their own clothes. The discus- 
sion had drifted in the direction of personal untidiness 
and its bearing on the school, and then to shoes as 
carriers of dirt and as indicators in general of the care 



302 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

one takes of his person. The final result was the or- 
ganization of the school into a "Clean Shoe Club." 
This club held a meeting once a week in one of the 
hygiene periods, but was a continuously active organi- 
zation through its officers, who inspected shoes daily 
and saw to it that the schoolroom floor was kept free 
from unnecessary dirt. The day of the visit happened 
to be a regular meeting day, and the pupils were not 
looking at the floor, but were inspecting their own and 
their neighbors' shoes. It appeared on further inves- 
tigation that the interest of the "Club" had extended 
to the homes, and that not only were shoes and the 
schoolroom very clean, but that a decided improve- 
ment in the condition of clothes and in the care of hair 
and teeth was evident as "by-products." 

The teacher was asked if the "Clean Shoe Club" 
was to be a permanent organization. Her reply was, 
"No, I think the 'Club' has about served its purpose. 
Through it the pupils have become more thoughtful 
about their personal appearance, and we shall soon 
emphasize some other feature of right living. I doubt, 
however, whether the club idea will be used. I find the 
children very inventive, and some one of them will be 
sure to suggest a novel and interesting way to practice 
what the book preaches when the time comes." 

A sixth-grade lesson 

The chapter on "Emergencies" was introduced by 
a short discussion about the meaning of the word and 



HYGIENE 303 

by a few personal experiences or observations illus- 
trating them. The teacher gave the first experience. 
The reading that followed the discussion was en- 
tirely silent reading. One emergency and its treat- 
ment was taken at a time. The "recitation" consisted 
of an informal dramatization of the situations dis- 
cussed in the text. Groups of pupils carried out in 
detail the directions given in the book. If any ques- 
tion was raised, the class read the section again si- 
lently and either confirmed the treatment that was 
being given or agreed to modify it. A few passages were 
read aloud. At one point in the lesson a boy was sup- 
posed to have broken his leg in the woods. His com- 
panion took him over his shoulder, as the book directed, 
and carried him down the aisle to his seat (home). 

A seventh-grade lesson 

Teacher — " The next chapter in our book discusses 
'Physical Exercise.' Before reading it, let us see how 
much we already know about the subject. We must 
know something, for we have been exercising all our 
lives and we have been studying hygiene for several 
years. No, don't raise your hands. Take a pencil and 
piece of paper and in two minutes write down all the 
reasons you can think of why you ought to exercise." 

At the end of the two minutes, she asked one of the 
good writers to go to the board and put down in a 
list the reasons different pupils gave from their papers. 
After all the different reasons had been listed, they 



S04 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

were compared to see if there were similar reasons that 
could be combined. The list was in this way somewhat 
shortened. 

Teacher — "All shut your eyes and think. Picture 
in your mind the human body. Without opening your 
eyes, tell me the different parts of the body that are 
benefited by exercise, and I will write them on the 
board." 

When no one had any more suggestions to make, 
they opened their eyes and studied the very miscella- 
neous list. 

Teacher — "Let us try to sort these various parts 
into related groups." 

Soon they had combined them into the "skeleton," 
"muscular," "nervous," "digestive," and "circula- 
tory" systems. 

Teacher — "The effect of exercise on some of these 
systems is more evident than on others. Which are 
you in most doubt about?" 

The pupils finally agreed, with the teacher's help, 
that the effect on the nervous system and circulatory 
systems was least evident. 

Teacher — "Time is up. Between now and the next 
lesson read the chapter on * Physical Exercise,' not- 
ing any facts or suggestions that are new to you. The 
recitation will consist of reports and a discussion of 
the notes that you have taken as you read the assign- 
ment." 

Later the teacher informed the visitors that the next 



HYGIENE 305 

lesson would doubtless lead to topics like the follow- 
ing: military training; Boy Scouts; Camp-Fire Girls; 
inter-school sports, effect on growth; self-control; use 
of alcohol and tobacco. There might be so many topics, 
she continued, that she would be obliged to assign 
some groups of pupils for special reports, and she 
thought it likely that the class might invite the direc- 
tor of the Y.M.C.A. or of the Y.W.C.A. to come and 
give a talk. 

But one of the visitors said, "Are n't you planning 
to spend a long time on one chapter? How about your 
examinations?" 

The teacher replied: "We are studying hygiene 
with the textbook to help us, we are not studying the 
book as an end. Moreover, we are really reviewing a 
great deal and learning incidentally much that other 
chapters discuss. So that every chapter will not be 
given so broad a treatment. In fact, I find pupils 
reading in all parts of the book as they touch subjects 
that they are interested in. As to the examinations, 
these are never allowed to interfere with the work that 
we have agreed is best for the pupils." 

An eighth-grade lesson 

This was in a large city school. The class had been 
reading in the textbook about the value of fresh air 
and the importance of ventilation. During the dis- 
cussion that accompanied the reading a question was 
asked about the open-air school for anaemic children 



306 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

in the city. A committee of pupils was appointed to 
visit this school and report to the class. The discussion 
of the report resulted in turning that eighth-grade 
room into an open-air schoolroom. Before this could 
be done, however, questions of suitable clothing, of 
permission of parents and of school authorities, etc., 
were raised, and in various ways were answered. In 
all this the pupils took the lead. They conducted the 
correspondence, they laid the plans, they carried them 
out. The teacher was always a helper, often a guide, 
and occasionally a judge; but never the dogmatic di- 
rector. It hardly need be noted that there was little 
time for the formal oral reading of the textbook and 
for the correction of John for leaving out "the" and 
of Mary for keeping her voice up at the end of a de- 
clarative sentence. 

In the type of lesson illustrated by these examples 
it is evident that pupils are learning to read in the best 
sense, that they are learning how to use books, and 
that they are applying the knowledge they gain from 
books in ways that must have a lasting influence on 
their present and future conduct. In this spirit and 
with this purpose every hygiene lesson may be con- 
ducted in every grade and in any of the many phases 
of this many-sided subject. 

In Rural Schools 

Teachers in rural schools are more fortunate than 
those in city schools in having favorable conditions 



HYGIENE 307 

for training in hygiene as well as in nature study and 
elementary agriculture. In these schools, no matter 
how ungraded they may be, hygiene problems are 
real and close at hand. It is the growing custom in 
such schools to give one period a week to this subject. 
The entire school joins in the exercise, the primary 
grade children listening, the intermediate grade chil- 
dren listening and asking questions, while the upper 
grade children are responsible for the discussions. 

At times the factors in and about the school that 
affect the health are enumerated and discussed, and 
the book is used for reference. At other times the book 
is studied, the various topics are discussed and illustra- 
tions of the text are drawn from the school, home and 
community. In one school an entire term was given 
to the questions, "What does our school need to make 
it a better place to live in, and how can we improve it? " 
By the end of that term, new sash curtains had been 
made by the girls, picture molding and a bookcase 
had been made and put in place by the boys, the out- 
houses were screened, a "sale" at the schoolhouse had 
netted enough money to buy two pictures, and the 
school board had promised to repair and paint the out- 
side of the schoolhouse and outbuildings, to tint the 
inside walls of the schoolroom, and to dig a well. 

In these schools the upper-grade pupils become 
responsible for the cleanliness and healthfulness of 
the schoolroom, outhouses, and school grounds. For 
efficiency in meeting these responsibilities, acting as 



308 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

individuals or in committees, they are given one half 
the rating received in the study of hygiene, the other 
half being given for class work. 

Class Discussions 
Class discussions should raise many practical ques- 
tions which may be put to the class as problems. Some 
of these are : — 

1. How much sleep should a child of fourteen years of 
age have? Quote authorities and reasons. 

2. Should children under fourteen years of age drink tea 
and coffee? Quote authorities and reasons. 

3. Let each member of the class make a statement of the 
food and drink consumed in a day. Give its food con- 
stituents, and estimate weight and bulk. 

4. As a class exercise make out a hygiene "ration" for a 
day. 

5. Committees might be formed as follows: — 

(a) Light regulation. This committee should keep the 
shades in repair as well as assume responsibility for 
regulating light. 

(6) Heat and ventilation — keeping thermometer rec- 
ords. 

(c) Schoolroom dusting — with damp cloth. 

(d) Care of playgrounds. 

The work done by these committees should be 
thought of as a part of the hygiene study. Negli- 
gence or indifferent work should reduce the school 
rating in this study. 

(e) Where it is feasible, selected or elected pupils in 
the hygiene class might be assigned the duty of 
school-building inspectors. These pupils should 
be allowed to carry out their inspections in school 
hours. 

The following questions, or others prepared by the 

class, might guide the inspection : — 



HYGIENE 309 

1. Is the heat, the light, the ventilation right and well 
regulated in each schoolroom in the building? 

2. Are the desks and seats adjusted to the pupils? Are 
the feet of any pupil dangling? What is the effect of 
this? 

3. Report on the posture of the school-children — sitting 
and standing. 

4. What is the anatomical effect of high-heeled shoes? 

5. What is the source of the drinking water for the school? 
Is the location and are the surroundings of this source 
of supply desirable or not? Why? 

6. Why is spitting so universally condemned and pun- 
ished by law? Is the law observed in this community? 

7. What are the physiological effects of eating and drinking 
fast? 

8. What is the proper clothing for indoors and for outdoors 
at school? 

These and many other questions will naturally be 
raised and should be assigned as a part of the hygiene 
lessons for study and discussion in class. 

The girls of the seventh and eighth grades should be 
given instruction in the care of babies and young chil- 
dren. These lessons may be given by the school nurse, 
if there is one. The Parent-Teachers' Club or the 
Women's Club of the town may properly undertake 
to provide special instruction if there is no other way 
provided. This instruction should be simple and prac- 
tical. 

The General Health of the School 

There are three matters relating to hygiene that 
should engage the teacher's interest continuously. 
They are the general health of his school and of each 



310 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

pupil; physical training, including plays, games and 
posture; and personal safety. 

The first of these, the general health of the school, is 
the special care of the medical inspector, when there 
is one, but his usefulness is much restricted if the 
teacher does not become his sympathetic and intelli- 
gent assistant. Perhaps it would be better to reverse 
the professional relation and think of the medical in- 
spector and school nurse as assistants to the teacher, 
as, in fact, they are. In a majority of the schools of 
this country responsibility for the oversight of the 
pupils' health and also of the sanitary condition of 
school buildings and toilets rests solely upon the 
teacher, because of the indifference of school boards, 
health boards, and medical inspectors. Many teachers, 
and an increasing number of them, are lightening the 
burden as previously stated by sharing it with the 
pupils, correlating the performance of the common, 
necessary daily and weekly duties with the study of 
hygiene. 

Physical training is coming more and more under 
the direction df the specialist, and better methods are 
being employed. So-called "gymnastics" is giving 
way to regulated play. Little exercise is now taken in 
the schoolroom beyond stretching and relaxing move- 
ments to rest body and mind, while the room is being 
"flushed" with out-of-door air. The school yard has 
become a playground and is less than formerly a loafing 
place. As to games, children learn some from each 



HYGIENE 311 

other, but their "repertoire" in many instances is 
found to be surprisingly limited. Particularly is this 
true of children reared in rural sections. These chil- 
dren, limited as they sometimes are in their social in- 
tercourse, are often as much in need of being taught 
what and how to play together as they are of being 
taught how to read, or to write. Every teacher, at 
small expense, may buy a book of games suitable 
for all ages of pupils, although such books ought 
to be furnished gladly by school authorities. In addi- 
tion to the direct physical and mental benefit of 
regulated play upon the pupils, games create natural 
situations which may be utilized with great profit for 
civic training. Children often reveal themselves more 
fully on the playground than in the schoolroom. 

Training in posture or correct carriage of the body 
is coming to be recognized as an indispensable part of 
physical training. Posture determines the relative 
position of the different parts of the body. If it is 
habitually correct, all parts of the body are in the right 
position to perform their functions and to develop 
properly. Habitually wrong postures, in sitting, stand- 
ing, or walking, hamper the normal action of the vital 
organs; they distort the bones and muscles and cause 
unsymmetrical growth. In some schools instruction 
and training in posture is made a distinct part of the 
daily work of the school, and pupils are rated in this 
subject as they are in conduct, school attendance, or 
in the various subjects of study, the rating being based 



312 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

on their habitual postures as they sit and stand in the 
school and on the observations of the physical director 
at times of special inspection. It is well to train pupils 
to test their own posture from time to time and to ap- 
point committees of pupils to assist the teacher in his 
efforts to establish good habits in this particular. 

"Safety First" has become a familiar warning, met 
with in factories, stores, railroad stations, and on many 
street corners. For all alike, the warning is a safeguard, 
and children must be made aware of the many dangers 
against which the warning would protect them. 

What we are in the habit of calling "accidents" cannot 
occur except through lack of thought; the child intent on his 
play, the adult intent on other matters, is the victim of an 
"accident." The mother, who gives no thought to the dan- 
ger, permits the child to play with a bonfire or matches; per- 
mits the child to make the highway a playground, notwith- 
standing the fact that there are vacant lots, yards, and, in 
many municipalities, regularly maintained children's play- 
grounds. The automobile operator, the horse driver, the 
motorman, and the locomotive engineer are too often blamed 
for injuries sustained by children when the blame properly 
rests upon the parent, guardian, or teacher who failed to 
point out the dangers. It is possible by setting a good ex- 
ample, and by repeated words of caution, to succeed in 
training the child to think "Safety First," and to realize that 
the chances taken because of lack of thought, even though 
they may not result in personal injury or death, are out of 
all proportion to the pleasure gained or the time saved. 

Caution should not be confounded with fear, and the 
exercise of caution, the habit of consideration of "Safety 
First," need in no manner interfere with work or recreation. 
There is no rational thing which we desire to do that cannot 
be done in a manner consistent with the thought of "Safety 
First." 



HYGIENE 313 

Good results have been obtained by appealing to the larger 
children to constantly safeguard the smaller, not only during, 
but before and after school hours. 

The effect of a constant example of care, mental balance, 
thought and absence of hurry set by larger children and 
especially by teachers cannot be overestimated. 1 

Teachers may make use of the following device to 
bring home to pupils the variety of dangers against 
which they must be on their guard: — 

S Steam and street cars. 

A Automobiles. 

F Fire. 

E Electricity. 

T Teams and Think. 

Y You! the person who must think of "Safety First." 1 

In every grade the matters that pertain to their own 
self -protection should be brought definitely to the at- 
tention of children, and the smaller ones should be 
shown the safest way to go to and from school, and the 
safest street crossings, and they should be cautioned to 
look both ways before stepping from the sidewalk 
to the street and before crossing a railroad track. 

Results in conduct and knowledge 

The results of such a course of study and training in 
the art of right living as has been set forth briefly in the 
foregoing pages, may be stated with some degree of 
definiteness. A number of the important results men- 
tioned below have not been foreshadowed in the pre- 
ceding discussion because its purpose was to indicate 
1 Pamphlet issued by Public Service Corporation of New Jersey. 



314 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

how the results might be secured rather than to enumer- 
ate all desirable lines of work. The quantity of result 
is much less important than its quality and variety. 

The first evidences that the instruction in hygiene is 
accomplishing its purpose will be the growing initia- 
tive of the pupils in bettering and caring for the school 
surroundings. They will be ambitious, with the teacher, 
to keep the schoolroom clean, and to make it as attrac- 
tive as it can be made under the conditions. They will 
be interested in making and executing plans for the 
proper care and use of the school grounds, and for 
keeping outhouses, or toilet quarters, in sanitary and 
moral condition. There are many schools where the 
teachers and pupils are accomplishing these things with 
very little aid from the community at large. It would 
appear that, if this is true of some schools, it may be 
true of all. 

In addition to this, it may be expected that by the 
end of the elementary school course (1) pupils will 
have a working knowledge of the structure of the hu- 
man body; (2) they will know in general how the vari- 
ous parts and organs do their work; (3) they will know 
the conditions necessary to keep the body in good 
working order; (4) they will understand the nature of 
contagion and know how to guard against harmful con- 
tagions; (5) they will know the sources of common 
dangers and be intelligent in the face of likely emer- 
gencies; (6) they will know something of the nature 
and value of foods and drinks; (7) they will know the 



HYGIENE 315 

nature of alcohol and tobacco, their evil effects on the 
growing organism and on society at large, and their 
probable effects on the mature person; (8) they will 
have an intelligent attitude towards their own health 
and that of the community; (9) they will know what 
is meant by "conserving" their physical and mental 
powers by self-control in all things; (10) they will be 
well-mannered in their associations with each other 
and with their elders. 

COLLATERAL READING 

1. On posture: — 

(a) The Posture of School Children. Jessie H. Bancroft. 

Chapters XXI and XXn. 
(&) The Hygiene of the School Child. Lewis M. Terman. 

Chapter VIL 

2. On play: — 

School Hygiene. Fletcher B. Dressier. 
Chapter II. 

3. On alcohol, tobacco, patent-medicines: — 

Civics and Health. William H. Allen. 

Chapters XXXIV, XXXV, XXXVI, XXXVH. 

4. On mental hygiene: — , 

(a) The Hygiene of the School Child. Lewis M. Terman. 

Chapters XVI, XVU, XVni. 
(&) School Hygiene. Fletcher B. Dressier. 
Chapter XX. 
Also the following books: — 

The Boys and Girls of Garden City. Jean Dawson. 

"The book relates the experience of a group of boys and girls en- 
gaged in solving the problems of their own community life." Pro- 
fusely illustrated. Very practical and highly suggestive. 
The Teacher's Health. Lewis M. Terman. 

Very valuable for the teacher's personal use and for the informa- 
tion of school authorities. 
Hygiene for the Workers. William H. Tolman. 

A most practical book for actual and prospective workers and for 
teachers of the upper elementary grades. 
Education by Plays and Games. George E. Johnson. 

The theory, history, and place of play in education with graded 
groups of games for use in and out of school. 



316 THE FUNDAMENTAL SUBJECTS 

Play and Recreation for the Open Country. Henry S. Curtis. 
Contains many helpful suggestions for the organization of recrea- 
tion in the rural home, in the rural school, and in the rural community. 
Games and Dances. William A. Stecher. 

Games, song-games, and dances for children, arranged by grades. 
Full directions given for playing the games. 
Educational Hygiene. Edited by L. W. Rapeer. 

" This volume is an attempt to bring together in organized form 
the latest information and advice of leading specialists in all the large 
phases of the subject." 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Note. The books referred to in the 'preceding pages are here listed. 
They are arranged according to the authors. 

Allen, J. W. The Place of History in Education. D. Ap- 
pleton & Co. $1.50. 

Allen, William H. Civics and Health. Ginn & Co. $1.25. 

Bagley, William C. The Educative Process. The Mac- 
millan Company. $1.25. 

Bancroft, Jessie H. The Posture of School Children. The 
Macmillan Company. $1.50. 

Briggs and Coffman. Reading in Public Schools. Row, 
Paterson & Co. $1.25. 

Cabot, Ella L., and others. A Course in Citizenship. 
Houghton Mifflin Company. $1.25. 

Chubb, Percival. The Teaching of English (Elementary 
Course). The Macmillan Company. $.72. 

Cook and O'Shea. The Child and his Spelling. Bobbs- 
Merrill Company. $1.00. 

Cubberley, E. P. Changing Conceptions of Education. 
Houghton Mifflin Company. $.35. 

Curtis, Henry S. Play and Recreation in the Open Country. 

, Ginn & Co. $1.25. 

Dawson, Jean. The Boys and Girls of Garden City. Ginn 
&Co. $.75. 

Dewey, John. How We Think. D. C. Heath & Co. $.75. 

Dodge and TCtrchwey. The Teaching of Geography in Ele- 
mentary Schools. Rand, McNally & Co. $1.00. 

Dopp, Katharine E. The Place of Industries in Elemen- 
tary Education. The University of Chicago Press. $1.00. 

Dressler, Fletcher B. School Hygiene. The Macmil- 
lan Company. $1.25. 

Dunn, Arthur W. The Community and the Citizen. D. C. 
Heath & Co. $.90. 



318 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Eliot, Charles W. The Concrete and Practical in Modern 
Education. Houghton Mifflin Company. $.35. 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Education. Houghton Mifflin 
Company. $.35. 

Ftnlay-Johnson, Harriet. The Dramatic Method of Teach- 
ing. Ginn & Co. $1.00. 

Flnley, Ida E. Blackboard Work in Reading. Sanborn & 
Co. $.50. 

Freeman, F. N. The Teaching of Handwriting. Houghton 
Mifflin Company. $.60. 

Haliburton and Smith. Teaching Poetry in the Grades. 
Houghton Mifflin Company. $.60. 

Hall, G. Stanley. Yotdh: Its Education, Regimen, and 
Hygiene. D. Appleton & Co. $1.50. 

Hill, Mabel. The Teaching of Civics. Houghton Mifflin 
Company. $.60. 

Hill, Mabel. Lessons for Junior Citizens. Ginn & Co. $.50. 

Hinsdale, B. A. Teaching the Language Arts. D. Appleton 
&Co. $1.00. 

Hosic, James F. Elementary Course in English. The Uni- 
versity of Chicago Press. $.82. 

Huey, E. B. Tlie Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. 
The Macmillan Company. $1.40. 

Ives, M. I. Illustrated Phonics. Longmans, Green & Co. 
$.40. 

Johnson, George E. Education by Plays and Games. 
Ginn & Co. $.90. 

Jones, Olive M. Teaching Children to Study. The Mac- 
millan Company. $.80. 

Judd, Charles H. Genetic Psychology for Teachers. D. Ap- 
pleton & Co. $1.20. 

McMurry, F. M. How to Study. Houghton Mifflin Com- 
pany. $1.25. 

O'Shea, M. V. Linguistic Development and Education. 
The Macmillan Company. $1.25. 

Palmer, G. H. Self -Cultivation in English. Houghton 
Mifflin Company. $.35. 

Rapeer, L. W. {Editor). Educational Hygiene. Charles 
Scribner's Sons. $2.25. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 319 

Redway, Jacques W. The New Basis of Geography. The 
Macmillan Company. $1.25. 

Robinson, James H. The New History. The Macmillan 
Company. $1.50. 

Scott, C. A. Social Education. Ginn & Co. $1.25. 

Smith, David E. The Teaching of Arithmetic. Ginn & Co. 
$1.00. 

Stecher, William A. Games and Dances. J. J. McVey. 
$1.25. 

Suzzallo, Henry. The Teaching of Primary Arithmetic. 
Houghton Mifflin Company. $.60. 

Suzzallo, Henry. The Teaching of Spelling. Houghton 
Mifflin Company. $.60. 

Swift, Edgar J. Mind in the Making. Charles Scribner's 
Sons. $1.50. 

Tappan, Eva M. Letters from Colonial Children. Houghton 
Mifflin Company. $.65. 

Terman, Lewis M. The Hygiene of the School Child. 
Houghton Mifflin Company. $1.65. 

Terman, Lewis M. The Teacher's Health. Houghton Mif- 
flin Company. $.60. 

Thompson, Mary E. Psychology and Pedagogy of Writing. 
Warwick & York. $1.25. 

Tolman, William H. Hygiene for the Workers. American 
Book Company. $.50. 

Wallin, J. E. W. Spelling Efficiency in Relation to Age, 
Grade, and Sex. Warwick & York. $1.25. 

.Woodberry, George E. The Appreciation of Literature. 
The Baker & Taylor Company. $2.50. 

Yocum, A. Duncan. Culture, Discipline, and Democracy. 
Christopher Sower & Co. $1.25. 

The First Yearbook of the National Society for the Study 
of Education. (Some Principles in the Teaching of His- 
tory, by Lucy M. Salmon.) The University of Chicago 
Press. 

The Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study 
of Education. Part I. (Minimum Essentials in Elemen- 
tary School Subjects, Standards, and Practices.) The Uni- 
versity of Chicago Press. $.75. 



320 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Letters to Children written by Famous People. Hinds, Noble 

and Eldredge. $.50. 
Bulletins of the United States Bureau of Education : — 

The Teaching of Community Civics. Bulletin, 1915, No. 23. 

Civic Education in Elementary Schools as Illustrated in 
Indianapolis. Bulletin, 1915, No. 17. 

The Trend of Civic Education. 



INDEX 



Abstract knowledge, futile, 4, 5. 

Accent of words, 128. 

Accidents, training children to 
avoid, 312, 313. 

Accuracy in mathematics, 192, 
199. 

Addition, 171-73; by endings, 
172; column, 172. 

Adjectives, proper, capitaliza- 
tion of, 108; predicate, 118, 
119. 

Advertisements, writing of an- 
swers to, 103-05. 

Algebra, 168, 202. 

Alphabet, teaching of, 11; saying 
the, 14. 

Anagrams, 136. 

Analysis of sentences, 119. 

Andersen, Hans, 90. 

Andrews, Jane, books of, 232. 

Antin, Mary, quoted on the 
study of geography, 250-52. 

Apothecaries' weight, 166. 

Appear, verb, predicate adjec- 
tive with, 119. 

Application, of knowledge, 5; 
of mathematical principles, 
skill in, 182-86. 

Argumentation, 88, 89. 

Arithmetic, eliminations, 5, 164- 
66, 204; standards of, 58, 192- 
94; needs attention of pen- 
manship teacher, 154, 155; 
mental work in, 182; a course 
in, 203-23; collateral reading 
on, 223. See Mathematics, 
Addition, etc. 

Assignment of topics, 3, 21, 22, 
26-28, 37-39. 

Astronomical imagination, 240, 
241. 

4 ' Atmosphere ' ' in description, 
87. 



Ayres scale of penmanship, 
148. 

Bacon, Francis, quoted on read- 
ing, 49. 

Bank discount, 166, 167. 

Banks, school, 278, 280. 

Bibliography, 317-20. 

Biographies, relating of, 83. 

Blackboard, use of, in reading 
lessons, 15, 25, 26, 29, 30; in 
lessons in common speech, 64; 
in composition lessons, 75, 88, 
95, 110, 111; in grammar les- 
sons, 118; in spelling lessons, 
132, 138; in penmanship les- 
sons, 148, 149, 151-53, 158; in 
mathematics,193; in geography, 
238, 239; in history, 258. 

Bonds, 166, 167. 

Book reviews, 56. 

Books, for pupils in English, 18, 
23, 24; James Russell Lowell 
on the use of, 57; for geogra- 
phy reading, 232, 249; intel- 
ligent use of, 235; for history 
reading, 253-56; teaching civics 
through, 282, 283. See Libra- 
ries, Textbooks. 

Business letters, 87, 88, 103. 

Calculation, skill in, 170-82. 
Capitalization and punctuation, 

107-09. 
Cary, Alice, quotation from, 228. 
Charts, use of, in mathematics, 

195. 
Checking in mathematics, 182. 
Chubb, quoted on reading, 50. 
Citizen, the good, Dana's view 

of, 267, 268. 
Citizenship, good, civics teaches, 

265-70. See Civics. 



322 



INDEX 



Civics, affords subjects for argu- 
mentation, 88; affords subjects 
for letter-writing, 102; rela- 
tion to geography and history, 
224-26; is the training to good 
citizenship, 265-67; involves 
study and practice of hygiene 
and morals, 268; related to 
study of government, 269, 270; 
taught through the life of the 
school, 270; spirit of liberty, 
271-73; dramatization in, 273- 
75; relation of school and out- 
side interests, 275, 276; the 
school as a civic organization, 
276-78; taught through school 
industrial activities, 278-82; 
taught through books, 282; in 
primary grades, 283; in the 
fifth and sixth grades, 283, 284; 
in the seventh and eighth 
grades, 284-86; conduct of 
recitation, 286; tests of suc- 
cessful teaching of, 287. 

Classes in reading should be rel- 
atively small, 20. 

Cleanliness, teaching of, 297-99, 
301, 302. 

Coherence, lack of, in descrip- 
tions, 86. 

Collateral reading, on various 
subjects connected with the 
point of view of teaching, 6, 7; 
on reading, 59, 60; on com- 
mon speech, 68; on composi- 
tion, 111; on grammar, 144; 
on penmanship, 162, 163; on 
mathematics, 223; on geogra- 
phy, 252; on history, 265; on 
civics, 287, 288; on hygiene, 
315, 316; use of, in history 
teaching, 264, 265 ; textbook 
is a guide to, 285. 

Colon, 108. 

Column addition, 172. 

Comma, 108. 

Commercial discount, 167. 

Commission, 167. 

Common sense, 84. 



Common speech, quotations tes- 
tifying to value of correctness 
in, 60, 61; teacher's influence 
in, 62; instruction and train- 
ing in, 62-68; and composition, 
compared, 69. 

Competition, 143. 

Composition, nature of, 69-71; 
difficulties of, 70, 71; teacher's 
part in, 71, 72; oral, 72-97; 
narrations, 74-83; descriptions, 
83-87; exposition, 87, 88; letter- 
writing, 87, 88, 101-06; ar- 
gumentation, 88, 89; material 
for, 89, 90; subjects for, 90-94; 
outlines, 94, 95; oral criti- 
cisms, 95-97; written, 97-111; 
criticism of written, 98-101; 
vocabulary, 106, 107; capi- 
talization and punctuation, 
107-09; use of blackboard, 
110, 111; collateral reading on, 
111. 

Compound interest, 166, 167. 

Compound proportion, 166. 

Concert, reading, 28; exercises in 
correct forms of speech, 64; 
exercises in spelling, 132. 

Conduct problems, collateral 
reading on, 287. 

Conference period, 99. 

Control, self and external, 5. 

Conversation exercises, 74, 75. 

Cooperation of teacher and pupil, 
142. 

Correct English, 60-8. 

Council and counsel, 133, 134. 

Course of study, local, 1; differ- 
entiated, 4; collateral reading 
on, 6; in mathematics, 203-23; 
in geography, history, and civ- 
ics, 224-26. 

Courtis, Dr. S. A., author of 
Courtis Standard Tests, 199. 

Criticism, self, 73, 95; oral, 95-97; 
of written composition, 98- 
101, 110; collateral reading on, 
111. 

Cube root, 5, 165. 



INDEX 



Daddy Longlegs, 103. 

Dana, John Cotton, quoted on 
the good citizen, 267, 268. 

Debating, 88, 89, 261. 

Definiteness, to be aimed at, 21, 
37, 69, 70. 

Democracy in school, 267, 268, 
271. 

Denominate numbers, problems 
in, 180. 

Descriptions, 83-87. 

Dewey, Dr., on interest, 141. 

Diacritical marks, 129. 

Diagramming, 119, 120. 

Diagrams and graphs, 191, 192, 
235. 

Dialogues, 294. 

Dictation, 109, 138, 144. 

Dictionary, use of, 125, 129, 130. 

Dining-table, conduct at, 296. 

Disciplinary subjects, 4. 

Discipline, collateral reading on, 
6. 

Discount, 166, 167. 

Discussions, 88, 308, 309. 

Distribution of subjects, 3. 

Division, 176-80; partition prob- 
lems in, 179. 

Domestic science, 279. 

Dopp, Miss, books of, 232. 

Dramatization, collateral reading 
on, 6, 60, 111, 252, 265; in Eng- 
lish, 17, 22, 23, 66; in mathe- 
matics, 184; in geography, 248; 
in history, 259, 261; in civics, 
273-75; in hygiene, 294, 296, 
303. 

Drawing, 201, 249. 

Drawling, 28. 

Drills, in English, 149, 151-53, 
160, 161; in mathematics, 
171, 172, 195-97. 

Ear-minded, the, 17. 
Ear training, 17. 
Eliminations, 5, 164-66, 204. 
Emergency treatment, 299. 
Emerson, R. W., quoted, 257. 
English, six phases of study of, 



8 ; treatment of different phases, 
8-163. 

Errors in speech, the correcting 
of, 63, 64. 

Essay-writing, 98. 

Examinations, in geography, 236- 
38; in history, 263, 264; in 
hygiene, 305. See Tests. 

Excursions, geographical, 229, 
230. 

Experiences, basis of child's in- 
terests, 13, 25; offering subjects 
for compositions, 89. 

Exposition, 87, 88. 

Expression, good, in reading, 8; 
language, 67, 68. 

Eye-minded, the, 17. 

Eye-strain, 293, 294. 

Fiction, 18. 

Flash cards, 195, 197. 

Fractions, 167. 

Froebel, F. W. A., 4, 267. 

Games, 310, 311; language, 64, 
65; word, 136; in 'mathemat- 
ics, 184, 195, 197, 206, 207, 
213. 

Geographical imagination, 240, 
241. 

Geographical reader, 248. 

Geography, affords subjects for 
argumentation, 88; for letter- 
writing, 102; for studying 
meanings of words, 131 ; relation 
to history and civics, 224-26, 
282; during the different 
grades, 226, 227; home, 227- 
31; excursions, 229, 230; 
world, 231-33; products of an 
elementary course in, 233-36; 
type examination in, 236-38; 
apparatus of, 238-43; methods 
of teaching, 244-52; problems, 
244-47; collateral reading on, 
252 

Geometry, 167, 201. 

Georgia Normal and Industrial 
College, 25. 



324 



INDEX 



Globes, 240. 

Government, civics related to 
study of, 269, 270, 283, 284. 

Governments, 234. 

Grades, the, in reading, 25-57; in 
penmanship, 158-62; elemen- 
tary mathematics by, 204-23; 
in civics, 283-86; in hygiene, 
293-306. 

Grammar, certain parts of, to be 
omitted, 5; limited value of, 
112-15; changes in usage of, 
114; skill in use of essentials, 
115, 116; material for study, 
116-18; methods of instruc- 
tion in, 118-20; time to be 
given to, 120, 121; summary, 
121, 122. 

Grammatical nomenclature, 114. 

Graphs and diagrams, 191, 192, 
235. 

Grayson, David, 12. 

Greatest common divisor, 165. 

Grouping, of pupils in reading, 
20; of sentences and para- 
graphs, 30, 33. 

Guessing and inferring, 29, 30. 

Gymnastics, 310. 

Hall, Dr. G. Stanley, his defini- 
tion of true reading, 8, 9; on 
methods of teaching reading, 
17; quoted on reading and 
studying books, 49. 

History, affords subjects for argu- 
mentation, 88; for letter-writ- 
ing, 102; for studying mean- 
ings of words, 131; relation to 
geography and civics, 224-26, 
253, 282; in the first six and 
one-half years, 253-56; sup- 
plementary reading in, 253-56; 
in the seventh and eighth 
years, 256-65; methods, 257- 
65; debating, 261; dramatiza- 
tion, 261 ; use of maps and pic- 
tures in teaching of, 262, 264; 
examinations, 263, 264; col- 
lateral reading on, 265. 



Home, cooperation of, in Eng- 
lish training, 66. 

Home lessons, in spelling, 135, 
136; in mathematics, 200, 201; 
in geography, 227-31. 

Hosic, Dr. J. F., quoted on story- 
telling, 76. 

Houston scale of penmanship, 
148. 

Hulbert, A. M., from report of, 
on industrial training, 279- 
81. 

Hygiene, study and practice of, 
involved in civics, 268; in- 
struction in, important, 289; 
public and school responsibil- 
ity, 289-93; for teachers of 
Grades I-IV, 293-99; exercise 
in use of toothbrush, 295, 296; 
exercise in conduct, at the 
dining-table, 296; teaching 
cleanliness, 297-99; emergency 
treatment, 299; for teachers of 
Grades V-VIII, 300-06; in 
rural schools, 306-08; class 
discussions, 308, 309; general 
health of school, 309-15; re- 
sults in conduct and knowl- 
edge, 313-15; collateral read- 
ing on, 315, 316. 

Illustrations, 103. 

Imagination, geographical and 
astronomical, 240, 241. 

Incidents, relating of, 79-82, 96. 

Independence of pupil, to be 
fostered, 14, 24, 33. 

Indexes, 235. 

Individuality, collateral read- 
ing on, 6; of pupils, 193, 194. 

Inductive method, in teaching 
grammar, 118; in teaching 
spelling rules, 140; in mathe- 
matics, 186-89. 

Industrial activities, school, cor- 
related with real problems, 
278-82. 

Industries, 234. 

Inferring and guessing, 29, 30. 



INDEX 



325 



Infinitive, study of, 5. 

Ink, 103. 

Instruction and training, in com- 
mon speech, 62-68; in penman- 
ship, 148-51. 

Insurance, 166, 167. 

Interest of pupil, 141-44. 

Interest problems, 165-67. 

Interpretation of problems, skill 
in, 169, 170. 

Junior Civic League, 277. 

Keller, Helen, 67. 
Knowledge in the abstract and 
unrelated, 4, 5. 

Lamplight, reading by, 294, 295. 

Language expression, 67, 68. 

Language games, 64, 65. 

Language training, collateral 
reading on, 68. 

Lantern slides, 243. 

Least common multiple, 165. 

Left-handed pupils, 151. 

Letters, sounds and names of, 
11, 12; teaching by use of 
sounds of, 13, 14. 

Letter-writing, 87, 88, 101-06. 

Liberty, spirit of, in school, 271- 
73. 

Libraries, use of, 54-57, 59; home, 
54; school, 54-56; public, 56, 
57; James Russell Lowell on 
tlje use of, 57. 

Lightning calculators, 181. 

Limitation of subjects, 69, 90. 

Literary appreciation, collateral 
reading on, 59. 

Literature, study of, 51-57; af- 
fords material for studying 
meanings of words, 131. 

Local course of study, 1. 

Longitude and time, 166. 

Look, verb, predicate adjective 
with, 119. 

Lowell, James Russell, on the 
use* of libraries and books, 

L 57. 



Magazines, 48. 

Manners, good, 273-75. 

Manual training, interests, 57; 
classes in, 280. 

Maps, 235, 240-42; Mercator, 
242; outline, 242; modeling of, 
249; sketch, 250; collateral 
reading on, 252; in history 
teaching, 264. 

Masters, Edgar Lee, his Spoon 
River Anthology, 85. 

Material, for compositions, 89, 
90; for grammatical study, 
116-18. 

Mathematical quality, 192, 193. 

Mathematical skill, 168-86; in 
interpretation, 169, 170; in cal- 
culation, 170-82; in applica- 
tion, 182-86. 

Mathematics, elimination of use- 
less, 5, 164-66, 204; changes in 
teaching of, 162; the field of 
elementary, 167, 168; check- 
ing, 182; mental and oral les- 
sons in, 182, 189, 190; inductive 
teaching in, 186-89; diagrams 
and graphs, 191, 192, 235; 
individuality of pupils, 193, 
194; drills, 195-97; tests and 
ratings, 197-200; home work, 
200, 201; regarding courses of 
study, 203-23. See Arithmetic, 
Algebra, Geometry. 

McMurry, Dr. F. M., purpose 
reading emphasized by, 39. 

Meaning of words, 130-32. 

Measures and weights, 166. 

Mechanical repetition, 15. 

Medical inspector, 299, 310. 

Memorizing, 52, 53, 127. 

Mensuration, 166; problems in, 
175, 191; geometry studied for, 
201. 

Mental, training, collateral read- 
ing on, 7; preparation for read- 
ing, 41, 42; discipline, 168; work 
in mathematics, 182, 189, 190; 
hygiene, collateral reading on, 
215. 



326 



INDEX 



Mercator maps, 242. 

Methods of instruction, 3; in 
reading, 33; in grammar, 118- 
20; in geography, 244-52; col- 
lateral reading on, 287. 

Metric system, 166. 

Morley, John, quoted on pur- 
pose reading, 39. 

Multiplication, 174-76. 

Mumbling, 28. 

Music director, 17. 

Narrations, 74-83. 
Nature study, 232. 
Neatness in mathematics, 192, 

193. 
News, 48. 

Newspapers, 48, 49. 
Note-taking, 97. 
Nurse, school, 310. 
Nursery rhymes, 25. 

Oral composition, 72-97. 

Oral criticisms, 95-7. 

Oral exercises in mathematics, 
182, 189, 190. 

Oral reading, place of, 8-10, 21, 
30, 31, 33, 42-46, 50, 51; some- 
times over-emphasized, 85; 
amount of, compared with 
amount of silent reading in the 
various grades, 36; two chief 
purposes of, 42; results of at- 
tempting to combine these 
purposes, 42, 43; a misleading 
indicator of general ability, 44- 
46; collateral reading on, 59; 
in history, 254, 255. 

Oral tests in spelling, 137. 

Outlines, 94, 95. 

Palmer, Prof. G. H., quoted on 
common speech, 60; on vocab- 
ulary, 106, 107. 

Parsing, 120. 

Partial payments, 166. 

Partition problems, 179. 

Partnership, 166. 

Penmanship, standards of, 58; 



changes in teaching of, 145; 
points on which there is agree- 
ment, 145, 146; the qualities of 
good, 146-48; standards or 
scales, 148; lesson, 148-51; 
position and pen-holding, 150, 
151; left-handed pupils, 151; 
use of blackboard, 152, 153; 
time to be given to lessons in, 
153; tests in, 155-57; in pri- 
mary grades, 158-60; in in- 
termediate grades, 161 ; in 
grammar grades, 161, 162; 
collateral reading on, 162, 163. 

Percentage, 165. 

Perkins, Mrs., books of, 232. 

Phonics, use of, in teaching to 
read, 12, 15-17, 128, 129. 

Phonograms, 16, 28, 129. 

Photographs, 230; stereoscopic, 
243. 

Physical training, 310-12. 

Pictures, 86, 242, 243; lessons 
from, 262. 

Play, 310; collateral reading on, 
315. 

Playing, store, 206; dominoes, 
207; soldiers, 207. 

Point of view, 1-7; the practical, 
2. 

Porter, Noah, quoted on purpose 
reading, 39. 

Postal cards, 243. 

Posture, in reading, 33; in speak- 
ing, 62, 66, 67, 97; training in, 
311, 312; collateral reading on, 
315. 

Practical ideal in education, 2-6; 
implications of, 3. See Useful- 
ness. 

Predicate adjective, 118, 119. 

Prefixes, in reading lessons, 16; in 
spelling lessons, 129. 

Preparation for reading lesson, 
41, 42. 

Primary combinations, 171. 

Primers, use of, 26, 29, 30. 

Print and script, use of, 15. 

Problems, in reading, 40; Ian- 



INDEX 



327 



guage, 69, 110; letter, 88; 
school work a process of solv- 
ing, 168; in mathematics, 171- 
81, 185, 187, 188, 190, 191, 
194, 198; partition, 179; in 
geography, 244-47; in civics, 
274, 275; conduct, collateral 
reading on, 287. 

Profit and loss, 167. 

Promotion, 44. 

Pronunciation, 127-29, 130. 

Proportion, 166. 

Punctuation and capitalization, 
107-09. 

Purpose in reading, 33. 

Purpose reading, 39, 40. 

Quantity in reading, 33, 34. 
Questions, fundamental educa- 
tional, 1, 2. 

Races of people, 234. 

Ratings in mathematics, 197-200. 

Ratio and proportion, 166. 

Reading, in the true sense, 8-10, 
46, 306; oral and silent, 8-10, 
21-23, 30, 31, 33,35, 36, 37-40, 
42-46, 254; purpose of, 9, 14, 
24, 33, 37; phases of, 10; dia- 
gram of phases of, 11; learning 
the process of, 11, 12; char- 
acteristics of a good system of 
instruction in, 12-19; should 
be plenty of material for, 18, 

, 23, 24; lessons in, should be 
pleasurable, 18, 19; conditions 
favoring success in, 19-21; 
home, 24, 55; of the teacher, 
24; in Grade I, 25-30; sing- 
song, 28; concert, 28; in Grade 
II, 30-32; in Grade III, 32-34; 
indefiniteness replaces defi- 
niteness in, 32-34; posture in, 
33; in Grades IV-VI, 34-46; 
study lesson in, function and 
illustrations of, 37-39; purpose 
reading, 39, 40; mental prep- 
aration for, 41, 42; sight, 43, 
44; in Grades VII and VIII, 



46-57; what to read, 46H«9; 
how to read, 49-50; and study- 
ing books, 49; memorizing, 52, 
53; time allotment for study of 
literature, 54; use of libraries, 
54-57 ; James Russell Lowell on 
the use of libraries and books, 
57; tests, 58, 59; standards, 58; 
collateral reading on, 59, 60; 
by lamplight, 294, 295. 

Reading-books, 47, 48, 125. 

Recitations, 63, 66. 

Religious customs, 234. 

Reports, made by pupils, 66, 
305, 306; of actual lessons in 
hygiene, 300-06. 

Responsibility for hygiene in 
schools, 289-93. 

Reviews, in spelling, 136-38; in 
geography, 233. 

Roots, 129. 

Rural schools, hygiene in, 306-08. 

Safety first, 312, 313. 

St. Nicholas, puzzles in, 22. 

Sand-table, 239, 240. 

Savings bank, school, 278. 

Scales, penmanship, 148. 

School, administration of, a com- 
plex affair, vii, viii; evolution 
of new type, 5; and society, 
collateral reading on, 7; or- 
ganized as miniature democ- 
racy, 267, 268; a gymnasium, 
268; civics taught through the 
life of, 270; spirit of liberty in, 
271-73; and outside interests, 
275, 276; as a civic organiza- 
tion, 276-78; savings bank, 
278; civics taught through in- 
dustrial activities of, 278-82; 
responsibility of school for 
health instruction, 289-93; 
bearing of life of, on hygiene, 
290-93; hygiene in rural, 306- 
08; general health of, 309- 
15. 

School City, the, 277. 

Script and print, use of, 15. 



328 



INDEX 



Seem, verb, predicate adjective 
with, 119. 

Self-criticism, 73, 95. 

Semicolon, 108. 

Sentences, training in construc- 
tion of, 66; analysis of, 119. 

Shop work, 281. 

Sight reading, 43, 44. 

Silent reading, importance of, 
31, 33, 35, 36, 42; amount of, 
compared with amount of oral 
reading in the various grades, 
36; the study and silent read- 
ing lesson, 37-40; collateral 
reading on, 59; in history, 
254. 

Sing-song reading, 28. 

Sketch maps, 250. 

Skill, mathematical. See Math- 
ematical skill. 

Smell, verb, predicate adjective 
with, 119. 

Social and religious customs, 
234. 

Social letters, 87, 103. 

Speed in mathematics, 193. 

Spelling, standards of, 58; re- 
cent changes in methods of 
teaching, 122, 123 ; selection 
of words, 123-25; methods of 
teaching, 126, 127; study with 
the teacher, 127-35; words of 
double, 130; teaching how to 
study, 132-34; variety of 
methods in teaching and drill- 
ing, desirable, 134, 135; pupils' 
private study, 135, 136; tests 
and reviews, 136-38; matches, 
137; spelling-down contests, 
137, 143; type lessons, 138-40; 
rules for, 140, 141; pupils' in- 
terest in, 141-44; contests, 143, 
144; collateral reading on, 144. 

Spelling books, 125. 

Spinning the arrow, 207. 

Square root, 5, 165. 

Standard or standardized tests, 
199. 

Standards, in English, 58, 70, 98, 



145, 147, 148; of judgment, 
96; in mathematics, 192-94; of 
thinking and action, 273. 

Stationery, 103. 

Stephens, Prof. H. Morse, 263. 

Stereoscopic photographs, 243. 

Stock cards, 281. 

Stocks, 166, 167. 

Story quality in early reading, 
13. 

Story-telling exercises, 75-9. 

Study, local course of, 1 ; courses 
of, differentiated, 4; study les- 
son in reading, two types of, 
21 ; training in, 21, 32, 34; as- 
signments for, in reading, 22; 
the study and silent reading 
lesson, 37-40; and reading of 
books, comparative value of, 
49; intensive, of literature, 51; 
of literature, memorizing a 
product of, 52, 53. 

Subjects for composition, 90-94. 

Subtraction, 173, 174; by end- 
ings, 173; making-change 
method of, 173. 

Suffixes, in reading lessons, 16; in 
spelling lessons, 129. 

Suggestive lessons, collateral 
reading on, 288. 

Supervisors, value of, v, vi. 

Surveyors' measure, 166. 

Suzzallo, Henry, quoted on civics 
recitation, 286. 

Syllabification, visual, 15. 

Tables, 166, 170, 196; of contents, 
235; statistical, 235. 

Taste, verb, predicate adjective 
with, 119. 

Taxes, 166, 167. 

Teacher, contagious enthusiasm 
of, 23; reading of, 24; influ- 
ence of, 62; part of, in composi- 
tion, 71, 72; study with, in 
spelling, 127-35; his part in 
study of hygiene, 289-92. 

Teaching, methods and subjects 
of, studied, 1, 2. 



INDEX 



Telegrams, writing of, 103, 105, 
106. 

Tests, reading, 58, 59; in spelling, 
136-38; in penmanship, 155- 
57; in mathematics, 197-200; 
of successful civics teaching, 
287. See Examinations. 

Textbooks on elementary math- 
ematics, 183-85, 201, 203; in 
geography, 247, 248 ; collat- 
eral reading on, 252; in his- 
tory, 256, 257, 284; in civics, 
284-86; in hygiene, 290, 300. 
See Books. 

Thorndike scale of penmanship, 
148. 

Time allotment, for reading les- 
sons, 20; for study of literature, 
54; for grammar, 120, 121; for 
penmanship lessons, 153. 

Time cards, 281. 

Title of composition, 69. 

Toothbrush, exercise in use of, 
295, 296. 

Topical recitation, 66. 

Trade discount, 167. 

Training, of the voice, 16, 17, 62; 
and instruction, in common 
speech, 62-68; in penmanship, 
148-51; in posture, 311, 312. 

Troy weight, 166. 

True discount, 166. 

True reading, 8-10, 46, 306. 

Type lessons, in reading, collat- 
eral reading on, 60; in spelling, 
4 138-40. 



Typical tests or examinations, in 
penmanship, 156, 157; in geog- 
raphy, 236-38. 

United States, study of, 232, 
233, 256, 284, 285. 

Unity, lack of, in descriptions, 
86. 

University of Chicago, Labora- 
tory of Experimental Educa- 
tion of, 45. 

Use of words, 130-32. 

Usefulness, as guide to subjects 
and methods, 3; what con- 
stitutes, 3; of correctness in 
common speech, 61. See Prac- 
tical. 

Verse, memorizing of 52, 53. 
Visualizing, 133, 139. 
Vocabulary in Grade III, 34; en- 
larging of, 63, 106, 107. 
Vocalization, 17. 
Voice training, 16, 17, 62. 

Weights and measures, 166. 
Whitebeck, Prof. R. H., quoted 

on results of geographical 

study, 233, 234. 
Word games, 136. 
Words, recognition of , 14, 15; for 

spelling, selection of, 123-25. 
World geography, 231-33. 
Written composition, 97-111; 

criticism of, 98-101. 



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